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1 
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AUTHOR: 


ARNOLD,  BENJAMIN 
WILLIAM 


TITLE : 


ENGLAND'S  PROGRESS, 
1793-1921  .  . 

PL  A  CE : 

BOSTON 

DA  TE : 

[1 922] 


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BIBHUGKAFHIC  MICROFORM  TARC,  0  T 


Original  Material  ..s  i  iluicd  -  Existing  Bibliographic  Record 


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Ar64 


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Arnold,  Benjamin  WiUiam,  1870- 

Engiaiid's  progress,  1793-1921  [by]  B.  W.  Arnold,  jr.  .. 
Boston,  E   0   Badger  £^922] 


em 


3  p.  1.,  5-270  p.    2H" 
Bibliography:  p.  265-266. 


Restrictions  on  Use: 


„  h  £^-  Brit.—Hist.— 19th  cent.  2.  ij.  lint.-Hist.— 20th  cent.  3.  Gt. 
Bnt. -- Pol.  &  govt.  —  19ih  tgm.  4.  GL  Bnt.  — Pol.  &  govt. --20th  cent. 
I.  Title. 


Library  of  Congress 

—  ^ — rLl^ni'  7 


Copyright    A  692445 


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DA530.A7 


22-25372 


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E  N  G  L  A  N  D '  S     PROGRESS 


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,1.7.9^.-1921 


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BOSTON 

RICHARD  G.  BADGER 

THE    GORHAM    f'RESS 


/   *     .^ 


<j^ 


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OPYtlGl? 


BY  Richard  G„  Baicer 


All  Rights  Reserved 


f     \ 


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<  •    ■  •   ■» 
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OfVEN 
CkARLES  DOWNEK 
JULY  1937 


Made  in  the  Unitfd  Stares  of  America 


of  J.  J.  Little  &  Ives  CospaGj, 


New   York,    U.   S.    A. 


To 

MY  WIFE 


f 


PR  F:  FACE 


I  his  brief  survey  of  England's   Progress  during  the 


past  centurv  is 


based 


oil    SCCO! 


ar\^'   sources. 


A 


the   hooks  used   is  t£!\-e!i   at   tl 


ic   c:no 


u 


f 


tl 


le  compilation 


iiSt    o 

kti 


f 


aiiu  lod  c:  b  ted  lies  s  to  tiicio  authors  is  hereby  acknowledged, 
l\€f crcficcs  arc  gri'cii  at  the  close  (i 


eacii  err 


.prer. 


Ill 


fiopc  IS  entertained  that  tfu;  rviidmg  of  this  sketcdi  may 
.lead  sonic  at  least:  to  h)ok  in  the  larger  \aih;.nies  for  iuller 
ligfit  on  the  subjects  treated  lierc. 


Lynch b 

June   ^ 


B.  W.  A 


RO 


JR^ 


jr 


H' 


CONTENTS 

CXAFTBK 

1.      ElGHTBBNTH  CbMTURT  EkGLAND      . 


II. 

1\. 


XIII. 


England  an u  i in:  J  r i^ 
1815 


vu  Revolution,  1793- 


EiL\  OF  Reaciiun  a-nd  Repression,  1815-1821 

SlRliNGTHENING    LIBERALISM    AND    PARLIAMEN- 
TARY Reform,  i  821 -1832 


Tjom 

9 


22 

33 

49 


V.     PRrK;Ri:ssiVE  Legislatiun,   1833-1845      ...       64 


VT.     Foreign  Policy  under  Palmerston 


•     • 


85 


\  if.    The  Ministry  of  Russell,  1865-1866      .     .       97 

VUJ      'I'm.,   I  ii  Rf,\^'Diok/ii.i.i  MisiSTKY,  i866-i868     .     104 


IX.     Tin  1 


!•  1  ''>  ..„ 


MiNiSTRY  OF  Gladstone,  i 868-1 874     115 


I  Ts  Second  Ministry,  i 874-1 880     . 


XI.     Ci 


■  s'f  f 


xf'^  Second  Ministry,  1880-1855 


136 


145 


SaLISBI  R\'s     f  IR    1      \iiNISTRY,     l88';-l886,    AND 

Gladstone's    1  j    u     "^Tvistry,   February- 
July,  1886 

Salisbury's  Second  Mixtstry,  i 886-1892,  and 
Gladstone's  Fourth  Ministry,  i  892-1 894 


161 


167 


XIV.  Thb  Ministries  of  Rosebery  (i  894-1 895  )> 
Salisbury  11895-1902)  and  Balfour  (1902- 
I Q05  J        »»*»♦•••••» 


4    KJ  *i0 


->.\  r 


6  Contents 

Cii.PrKE  'AGE 

XV.    The    MiNisxRiEs    of    Campbill-Bannerman 

(IQO6-IO08)    AND  OF    ACQUIT H    I'P   TO    10  14       .        200 

^Vf.     Causes  of  the  World  War     .      .      ,      .      .     224 

XVil.     Englani/*s  Entrance  inta  axd  Share  ls  THB 
CrREAi'   War.      As=.mE'o  h,    n;ji4-iyiO.     Lloyd 

(i-JORcr,,     IQlO'OO-il      ......••        230 

Jvl'Iil,        Io:(ESl.,AT!\0:      Ih'-FRODOCrS     Ui      THE     \\'/Ov     .As.- 

Recent  'I'ExiiEXCiEs     .......     254 

Bibliography   .....  265 

Index  .........     267 


J- 


.^* 


ILSGl.ASiy^   F'R()0RF9? 


•« 


EXGLAND'S    PROCURESS 


CHAPTER  I 


EIGHTEENTH  CI-^TL  RV  ENuLAND 


/ 


Students  of  this  periocl  tliough  differing  in  their  esti- 
mate of  the  age  as  a  whole    some  making  most  of  its 

{■brighter,  others  of  Its  darker  features,  still  arc  well 
agrecil   in   their  interpretations  (4   sto-eral  phases  ni,    its 

life. 

Th'     ienM.r\    -.\j<    certaitllv    marked    by    a    display   oi^ 

stroni:  '  .t.d  .  ^  .d  ^  .  ■  The  Atje  of  Anne,  I702-t7T4> 
has  b<    a     d    d  ..     :       lira     f  English  literature.^ 

Idope,  >uift  \  I'-  >'>a  >:].:  !Kfo€  knew  how  to  make  their 
iivi]K  useful  ta  idle  politlelans  "v\aa:>  fiad  iiatronage  to  dis- 
rrrhioeo  ddie  (i  .■.••*•  '  '  '^"  " ■■  '  ou  .  r,s  in  the  time 
nf  the  Cdesars.  f'.nk  ro  ..  'm  !a\iS'.-\„  lucrative  ap- 
pointments and  honors  up^m  men  of  k;tters.  In  the 
''Spectateoa"  the  "Idttilerd'  the  *d,uardiand'  and  the 
'^Craftsnian"  niav  be  reeognized  the  earlier  forms  of  the 
m  o  d  e  r  n  rn  a  ga  ?  s  n  c .  news  p  a  i  -  e  r  a  n  d  p  o  1 1  te  e  a  I  j  >  a  m  p  li  k^l . 
Idicre  appeared  in  this  eenturv  the  taiiaius  essayist, 
Samuel  IfdoaMJis:  tiie  pkiv-wnte?--  ^  inkJsrrotlo,  >h(oadaio 
Footc,  and  Ilowc:  tiie  nrnelo.  IKnr.  i  .J,dirig.  Smol^- 
Ictt,  Samuel  Richarastai,  1  o.-  •.  H  one\.  aa  i  Maria  k,.dgc. 
worth:  the  poets  I'dw -- -*  ')  .o  a  m^  ^  •  '' '-^  Hionison. 
iIh-    authr-.r   ot    ^VRuie    T"  "■  oo    u.'r,-,    lyncisr   aro..l 


{  o 


England's  Progress 


sat i i  1 N t ,  l\i}h c r t  Burns ;  the  hymn-writcrs  Watts,  Wesley, 

F1crcl-icr'  and  Tupiady ;  the  moral  and  political  philoso- 
phcr^  '>i\\nuci  Clarke,  Joseph  Butler,  Locke,  Paley,  jer^ 
emv    l»  t    and    Blackstone:    the    classical    ^ 

i\icfi:irj   H-/hrlev:  the  sciciitists    Inhn    Riw  the  7?'  \    j  -', 


•■  >  ■ 


i  h  i:   I'  h  c  1 1 1  i  s  t  n  i 


'W'L'OIK     I 


1 1 


u  ;\"r    a  n  .1 


I  lalicv   wiio  lirst 


tilC    i 


o 


rbii; 


luirrii:k.    Macklni.    and   Kemble;   the   econo*^  " 

Sum!],      !  iickcr.     aiiJ     ^Li'tiius;     the    histona''^ 

llunif    and   (!ibl)uns;    tlte   ar'datects    William   I 
W 


5 

\     1.'  11] 


■It?       'S  n  ■ 
i  •'.  ,  t.  -.     -.  -)  1  1  ■,.  i 


•,  t-  f 


ra\^lnr:  tiie  i^enius  William  H    .,  ."k. 
waiu'M:    an^rai\:nu^:    aiid    ininitiii^s    enable   one    to 
i.undnn    life    ct    his   da\  ;    the   painters   of  hislu. .    d    .■  . - 
turcN    \\  i/st.    I>arr\,    and    Copley;    the    famous    porti<i:t 
and  landscape    i  rs   Reynolds,  Gainsborough,    Rom- 

nc\',  WdUtin  a!id  id^-rett;  the  inventors  Kay  who  cic\-!sed 
the  ll\a!y^>iiutth;.  1  larirrcaves  the  **Spinning  jiaifus" 
Avkwr'iiilit  the  '  s|aning  frame,"  Crompton  the  "spin- 
n  114  niiik  wfii  h  combined  the  principles  of  former 
nuuliuics,  C'aitwaa^fit  the  power  loom,  Janic*-  Watt  the 
stiair!i--cni4inc,  aa^ul  jtasiah  \\  t.a,igu"nnd,  \vh-'^    '  .       "    ^v 

superior   earthefiwat  re   wed    suited   for  busts,     •  ■    . 

and  cafih'os,  as  wad!  as  lor  pottery.  In  Mie  l>'"  p...* 
id   tlie  ierirur\'  tdii;   fanglish  theatre  ' 

ele\ated,    the    Encyclopaedia    Britan  :,    cir- 

culatini:    hhrarae^    first    established,    Lv.  ^    lormed 

a  e   aa    '''  fashionable   classes,   aiui   a   children's 

a  f  -  .-  .  t 

'dhs    true    tiaat    d,r:aup    tlie    rcigfns  of  George   T   and 

George  11,  i  ;  la 1760,  and  espeeially  under  Robert  Wdd- 

pole's    linn  a  which  covers  most  of  this  period, 

"kiiigiua  L/1   tiie  L-'iah^  were  not  favored  by  the  Govern- 


Eighteenth  Centu 


England 


II 


ment  so  much  as  in  the  reicfn  of  ^\nne;  and  since  the  read- 
ing pubhe  was  imr  hiii^e,  owing  in  part  to  the  fact  that 
books  as  yet  were  costly,  authors  did  not  prosper.     But 


ne\  {  ■"• 
p  h  k  '   • 
]a/\'   .1 
u«a;ue. 
f,.:...a., 
(,,!  0,.?-. 

ments, 

pientif 

of 


writers    multiplied — minor    bards,    pam- 

oid   reviewers.     They  prepared  sermons  for 

a  ompetent  parsons;^  they  translated  and  an- 

i  ahassical  works  for  bookdealers :  they  wrote  pre- 

proloi^rucs     dedications   for  books,   computed   in- 

Oi    diiinacs,   and  contributed  poems,  advertise- 

uffs  to  the  p  pers.    The  literary  output  was 

h  ui  it  was  inferior  in  quality,  many 

the  circulating  libraries  being  mere  trash 


TM 


Enf^lish 

fare    vd 


!   !  u.  t     i     i  I. 


S  O!  II 


full  of  maudl  n  sentimentality  and  of  sexual  improprie- 
ties, revolting  to  a  sound  moral  se-ise. 

The  a^re  us  n -d     nt  arid  i         ative  in  spirit,  full  of 
action.       Ihrouij-hout    well    nigh    the    entire    period    the 

military  forces  were  engaged  in  war- 
roreign  power.     The  public  purse  was 
drained  for  military  enterprises,  need- 
its  of  brilliant  victories  and  glorious 
sea  were  frequent,  warming  the  na- 
n^  martial  pride;  wars  and  rumors 
I  adic  mind.     In    1703  the   1  m^   sh 
d         ah   with  Austria's   aid   was   at- 
'  a   r    !i   dominions  from  Philip. 

lad  Hav  arians  were  beaten  by  Marl- 


ko 


■  S  h     1 


ua  s  e 


ao 


wa'es! 


W  ii 


t        .  :)lood  and    > 

ui    vvairs   filled   the 

army   un^ 

temp    r  p 

In  r;a..a  - 

borough 

captured, 

1*       *      I* 
les   m    ?: 

narde  1 


n 


'm,  and 


'J  fl     i 


»»  3 


in  the  same  year  Gibraltar  wa^ 

city   of   Barcelona    in   Spain   taken. 

d       ted    in    1706    Villeroi    at    Ramil- 

m   i7i,jS    Marshall  X'cndome   at  Oude- 
Idt,  and  in  r    p  V'Uars  at  Maiplaquet 
n  I  718  and  again  in  1739  England  was 
In  I  742  the  nation  became  involved  in 


1 2 


EmgUmJPs  Progress 


the  War  of  the  Anstmn  Succession.,  and  in  1741  at  Det- 

tmuefi  (fcj  '.it  !    thch  and  Bavarians,     in   17  cr.  was 

coniriicriccii    thi ^^v 


fi-year  struggle,   in  w 


' '  [ 

*-•,.  ' 


••\; 


w(tn   Canaihi    Irani   the   I->ench,   and  laij 

u\    thi;    liruisli   Ivnipirc  in   India.      In 
recapturtaj   Cailcutta   a,rul   won   the  bat 
»7''^'    ^if"    ^-vi'c   Coote  destroyed   rhi 

Indwi    by   laipturing    Fofidicdicrrw    :»n 
\iai>  gained   an  important    \ 
In    I7(i2    I'ingland  was  \aai 
laroni  1  776  to  i  7^^!  I'inglaiid  vv  is 
can   colonics.      \  'roni    1  ^()i)   Xif    ,  • 
in  I  iifuJustao,  and  \n   i  7^^/  w  as  ' 
C  arnatic.      In    iiii^    tlio    raii.d.s'. 
1  (udrin,   (.■cn'>iaa   and   sioanaii  o}'  : 


f\.  -n'!-* 


a  I  i  t,  i 

i        si 

'.\  ,1 


I  1 


i  ;i 


'  -i 


o  ,  -.» 


a   navv. 


X:  •   t 


I  ■"•<■■, 


lestroyed  t 


\a,i  !  ." 
•  1 1 


' ;    !  ^'  a 


i   la  fiv  -1 

i  ^  ;    O  !    {  ~  . 

f  1  (  ■■>  (If         I  r  ^ 
I.  1  t.    ^..    K.         I   t  i 


'  a  V 


-■''^•2  .au\Kca;   Xapoleon  who  v\ai>  bent  upoi 
t  aanJ  winnnio;-  India. 


1 


In 

Kannnu: 

I  np!  md  had  frequently  to  meet  attempts  at  invasion 
uurnu;  diis  century.  In  1715  ihc  5tnarr  licir  to  the 
thrcnn;  nnida  a  iutilo  \.\t{^m\n  to  gain  tic  crowan  and  a 
quarter  of  a  century  later  the  Young  Pretender  made  an 
abortive  effort.  A  Spanish  fleet  bent  upon  the  in  a>H)ii 
of  hnirhind  was  defeated  in  1797.  Rumors  of  tormid- 
able  invasn  ns  In  France  were  frequent;  in  1756,  1759, 
^779)  17^ ^  To.  796  and  1798.  With  military  en- 
gfapfemcnts  i»u  frequent,  enemies  so  numerous,  ^nd  dan- 
gers so  imminent  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  martial 
zeal  and  the  fighting  spirit  were  strong!)  ..v doped  in 
the  nation  as  a  \\  iiuic. 

The  practice    if  duelling,  **the  reigning  curse  of  the 


age, 


aw\-    in    fir 


irt  out  of  this  high-strung  combative 

spint.     In  the  latter  part  of  the  century.    1760-1800, 


Eiffh$eenih  Century  England 


A     \ 


*      ill, 


were  recorded  fo 

Right     I  ban     \\"n- 

Townshend,  the  in  b 

were  leading  public  n  co     an 

Sociahilitv,  pleasure-seekif 
actciistic  features  of  the  b 
was  computed  that  in  Lo  d 


abjnc  fifty-three  duels.     The 
I^-o!iw!ale,   Lord 
i  ord  Byron 


i  i  I 


Wbbww    .:wa    i 

■ua;n  in  duels. 

■  'id  a'-nn:-\-adity  were  char- 

''\    the    18th   centiiry.      It 

done  even  in  the  earlier 


years  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  were  about  two 
thousand  coffee-houses,  and  iii  their  frequenters  was 
represented  every  class,  business  and  profession  known 
to  the  country.  The  coffee-house  was  a  lon^  room,  par- 
titiuacd  off  into  rows  and  rows  of  boxes,  separated  by  a 
central  aisle,  which  were  filled  day  and  night  with  guests 
of  different  sorts  and  conditions,  sipping  a  cup  of  coffee 
or  tea.  reading  the  journ  d  id  periodicals,  writing  let- 
ters and  above  all  else  discussing  politics.  Clubs  were 
numberless,  and  of  every  conceivable  nature  and  pur- 
pose, ranging  from  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds*  Literary  Club, 
where  men  like  ^a    ow   b  b  I  T  bnund  Burke  met 

for  serious  discussion  o  nbj.w^  .1.  science,  art,  and 
literature,  to  the  Ira:  lities  for  amusement  and  ban- 
queting, such  as  'The  iNonsense  Club*'  and  the  '  \b  Pay 
No  Liquor  Club."  Excessive  drinking  and  reckless 
gambling  4  were  widely  prc\alent.  Persons  of  both 
sexes  and  of  all  ages  from  fifteen  to  eighty  had  the  vicious 
habit,  some  parties  assembling  to  spend  whole  nights  in 
games  of  chance;  and  among  the  rich  and  hifrh-born  the 
stakes  were  high.  Charles  Fox  lost  at  cards  12,000 
pounds  one  night,  and  12,000  more  the  next  afternoon; 
a  lady  lost  one  night  **3,ooo  guineas  at  loo."  The  state 
patronized  b  tteries  in  order  to  raise  revenue  for  the 
crown;  and  thus  had  some  share  in  infecting  the  nation 
with  the  spirit  of  reckless  speculation  and  stock-jobbery. 


.1  ^ 


England^s  Progress 


The  collapse  of  the  notorious  South  Sea  Company  of 

secured  from  the  government  a  charter 


f-  ri  'I  r     rt  •i 


the 


N 


|V,l!iiSh 


:'i  1 1 


i  I 


..  \  i '  i'  V 


r 


',1      :..  \. 


for    exelusi\'c    pnxilei^es    \ot    trading  with 

A,rne:'ican    fHissessions   in  return   for   rclie\e;j,    "        '    '" 

iii  certain   hi,^^  Jchts,   was  a  national  calair^i^v       "    '     ^ 

heavv   losses   on    r)c>th   the   government   aioi    tcir   ' 

The  (  I  o.  typical  of  many  a      > 

concern  !    .o!  :cd  uii  unsound  busines:^    in  ^ 

were    se'lHriiz   in 

e  gullibli  ;  ' 'c  crazed  with  the 
To  dr  heavily  seems  to  have 
amount  of  intoxicating  liquors  one 
could  hold  and  st  11  'keep  his  legs"  being  regarded  as  a 
rude  test  of  manliness.^  1  J  royal  princes,  the  nobrlity, 
the   :neo6ers     0    Parhamcfit,   the  gentry,   and  tlie  ladies 

1  Bacchus  to  the  tune  of  tloee  ro 
id  the  professional,  business  and 
not  iar  behind  in  their  devoted 
id  constant  were  the  streams  of 
wine,  beer,  ale,  gin  and  many  another 
Hiig  ill  tavern,  inn  and  public-house.  In 
**  ucester  wrote  "Those  accursed 
to  the  shame  of  our  Govern- 
roio  sFi  s  I  i^dy  to  be  had,  and  in  such  quantities 
drunk,  haee  Joiiiged  the  verv  nature  of  onr  people.  And 
thcv  w  ill  if  continued  to  be  drunk,  destroy  the  very  race 
of  the  people  themselves.''  ^  In  1750  the  average  con- 
sumption per  head  was  six  times  what  it  is  today. 

The  drinking  habit  must  account  in  a  degree  for  the 
coarse,  violent  and  brutal  manners  of  the  period.  The 
age  lackcvi  refineinent.  liic  profanity  of  the  men  of 
fashu  n.  the  oaths  of  the  gentler  sex,  the  obscenity  of 
the  popuhir  novels,  the  immodesty  of  the  theatrical  per- 


ciples  whose  shares  of  stock  promoters 

h:k, 

teve 

been  gocao  torno   hk, 

!  1 


0\    t  asliiofi     ■.     '  ■ 
six  bottles  at  a.  : 

classes 
liba  tioiis. 


hil)t)rHio 


w 


i 


( )  ■ 


i  S  i 


n  t 


\  I 


y  .- 


spirit.. 


Eighteenth 


:„.  e/i//o'"v 


England 


15 


formances,  the  stupid  practical  jokes  played,  the  vul- 
garity of  general  conversation,  all  attest  the  rudeness  of 
the  times.  The  treatment  of  crinicnals  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  amusements  and  pastimes  of  the  common 
people,  such  as  bull-fights,  bear-baiting,  cock-fights,  and 
encounters  in  the  prize  ring  between  women  as  \e!l  as 
men,  bear  like  testimony. 

The  treatment  of  criminals  was  extremely  inhumane. 
The  worst  offenders  were  sometimes  pressed  to  death 
witli    licavv   weights,   or   were   quartered,   strangled  or 
burnt.     Ihe   ''hanging  matches"   were  public  spectacles 
drawing  great  crowds  who  made  holiday  out  of  the  occa- 
sion.    And   the   hangings  were    frequent.      To  pick   a 
pocket  of  even  a  few  pennies,  to  steal  from  a  dwelling 
house  a  handful  of  shillings,  to  steal  a  sheep,  or  to  take 
cloth   from   a   bleaching  ground,   were   capital  offenses. 
When  Robert  Peel  in  the  next  century  undertook  the 
reform  of  the  criminal  code  he  found  that  there  were 
223  offenses — many  of  quite  minor  turpitude — declared 
to  be   felonies  punishable  with   death.     To  become   in- 
volved in  debt  or  to  fall  behind  in  payment  of  rent  was 
often  punished  by  imprisonment  and  to  go  to  jail  was  to 
run  the  risk  of  being  starved,  or  bitten  by  rats  in  some 
fetid  dungeon  or  of  catching  some  loathsome,  contagious 
disease,  such  as  smallpox  or  jail-fever.     The  fearful  con- 
ditions of  the  English  jails  were  revealed  to  the  world 
by  John  Howard.*^     From  the  time  he  was  appointed 
High  Sheriff  of  Bedford  in  1773  until  his  death  in  1790 
he  devoted  his  life  to  the  one  subject,  prison  reform.    The 
abuses  he  found  were  numerous:  no  regular  allowance  of 
food  or  of  bedding,  no  sewers,  no  fireplaces,  no  infir- 
maries, no  proper  ventilation,  no  sufficient  supply  of  water 
for  drinking  or  washing.     He  computed  that  every  year 


l6 


England's  Progress 


jail-fe\er  carried  away  more  people  than  the  gallows 

I  hi    nrisons  were  not  only  hotbeds  of  disease  but  also 


.  k 


lee:  fr)r  in  tfieni  no  discrimination  was  made 

lU"  aire   sex,   or 


1  \\         1  o 

'laioiid'cr    rnit    ao   ahK. 


T  \  l,  f  i 


cm   a>:ic  ^..  ....   . .  ^    ..^^^ .    -^  - , 

and  woiiuro  a  o  =»  and  girls,  first  offenders  and  old  hard- 
cncii  criminals,  debtors  ami  felons  were  crowded  to- 
l^ctiier-    a.    conditaca;    resulting   in   general   and   thorough 


I 


contafiiniaraon  In  o  c  places  the  jails  belonged  to 
pri\aitc  iruiividuah..  wia^  would  extort  what  they  could 
from  prisoners   anil   the  prisoners'   friends.      In  country 

arongly  built  heavy  chains,  iron 
oi a  heavy  iron  bars  were  sometimes 
useil  to  svoaro^  ^e:   elI!latc^.     Such  was  the  case  in   1768 
in  the  ia  1        I  M-longed  to  the  bishop.     In  the 

out»ot-.theovav    d^.to.u  ^cv^a'ai  relics  of  barbarism  lin- 

he  pruning-knife  for  cuttinpr  off  a  culprit's 


lails    wriK;ri    were 
collars  witfi  spik'./^' 


irerci 


such 


s   f 


ears,  a  kind  of  scissors  for  slitting  fiis  nostnis,  an     iron 


a 


}"(^r  sear  til  i{  the  \v 


ounds/'  the  **tumbril"  and  the  *'brank'' 
or  gossip^s  bridle.''  The  "ducking-stool"  and  die  pil- 
lorv  were  employed  as  means  of  correction,  and  to  the 

.vii  in  n  r  pn.r  ua  re  sent  women  as  well  as  men  offenders. 
\^  I  /  -a^  no  last  judicial  execution  for  witchcraft 
in  IrngI  n  d  ut  fifteen  years  later  there  was  a  case  of  try- 
i^^  a  wiich  by  liic  mediaeval  method  of  water  ordeal. 
larruuv  was  considered  and  piinisiied  as  crime.  The  pns- 
^.^,-^er  at  the  bar  ofti  <^  satlered  iniustho^  hv  reason  oi  the 
facts   that   the  laws  ci  r  crimes  and  penalties  were 

most  !iic(*nsistent  and  coni  and  that  too  much  dis- 

cretion and  power  in  d  ^  1:  punishment  lav  with 

the  lusticcs  who  as  a  (  woefully  ignorant  of  the 

body  ot   tfie   hne   and   uaiu^c  uw.isions  were  sometimes 
determined  hv  hrHH,'<. 

An  evil  of  the  later  years  of  the  century  was  the  un- 


Eighteenth  Century  England 


reatrieted  employment  of  children  in  f  actoriea  and  minea. 

The  eiiddreo  iai  the  workhouses  and  in  the  charitable 
ifistitutioiis  were  hired  out  to  the  managers  ot  the  tac« 
?  !  were  worked  from   11   to   16  hours  a  day. 

M.i!i\  thousands  of  small  boys  and  girib  were  put  under 
heartless  masters  whose  sole  purpose  was  to  make  inoncy 
and  who  drove  them  in  their  work  to  the  utmost  hrmt 
oj  a  Jarance  Falling  to  sleep  at  their  work  from  over- 
latigue,  U)i  ehildreii  waoa:  nfteii  caught  in  t!ie  niachinery 
and  ma  d  lor  hie  D-  1  t  and  dissolute  parents 
were  re  is  of  m    u         enslave  for  years 

their  ulibpruig.  i  0^  physical  and  moral  injuries  attend- 
ing such  a  system  of  labor  must  have  at  all  times  been 
patent  enough  to  any  thoughtful  observer,  but  the  cen- 
turv  closed  before  the  fate  of  the  children  of  the  poor 

touclud  the  heart  of  the  nation.     The  establishment  of 

the  |Hiblic  schools  in  which  they  may   •  e   found  to-day 

belongs  to  the  nineteenth  century. 

Another  class  of  human  beings  for  whose  "welfare  no 
man  cared"  were  tlie  thousands  of  negro  slaves,  man- 
acled and  packed  away  in  the  close  holds  of  vessels,  being 


carried  to  the  Spanish,   French,   ana   1  ego  h    colonists 
From   1676  to    T776  it  has  been  comp  td   tfiat  about 
three  millions  of  Africans  were  shipped  t      \rnerica,  and 
that  a  quarter  of  a  million  more  perished  uii  the  voyage 

over,  Th^^  Fni:!--di  sinvc  trade  had  begun  as  early  as 
1562  when  John  W  i  a".']-:',  carried  300  negroes  from 
Sierra  Leone  Ut  i  ioiweeuia.^  Idie  nefarious  traflic 
was  defended  partly  iMx  the  cr^nund  that  the  negroes 
would  be  better  off  in  Aneru  \frica,  that  they 

we  nging  savagery    tAr   civilization,  heathenism 

tdjr  Cianstianity.  Wdiat  supported  the  trade  so  hang 
was  the  enormous  profits  yielded.     To  the  conservative 


I 


England's  Progress 


and  practical  mind  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  branch 

of  commerce  so  lucrative  and  so  long  established  ap- 
peared UN  :i  blessintr  rmre  and  simple,  an  indispensable 
support  or   the   Briti>h  n:i\y. 

The  age  was  niatcriahstic  and  uninformed  with  the 
spirit  of  iJcaliMii,  Reiauans  and  Innovations  were  feared, 
the  senrinicnt  ''WIku  Is  is  right"  prolonging  the  days  of 
manv  an  abuse.  The  political  world  was  notoriously 
corrupt  It  w  IS  a  time  oi  factions,  cliques,  and  intense 
partisanship  when  herce  jealousies  were  rife  and  con- 
tests were  filled  with  violence  and  acrimony.  X  imerous 
sinecures  and  hnasii  patronai4a  were  bestowed  for  ad- 
vancing ■part\'  interests  and  bribing  at  elections  was  iini- 
versallv  }  racticed  George  III  maintained  a  corruption, 
fund  ot  rn.an\  th  Jioaiid  pounds  with  which  to  buy  the 
borougii  seats  in  Ihirliament.  Carousing,  street-fighting, 
breaking  o!  fieadis,  burning  of  polling-stations,  and 
smashing  vind iue,  were  not  unusual  features  of  a  hotly 
contesteij  elect  ion. 

\  long  the  aristocracy,  cynicism,  selfishness,  expedi- 
L  a  and  skepticism  ruled,  while  in  all  orders  laxity  of 
nee  als  and  disregard  of  religious  principles  prominently 
appeand  I  i  high  society  conjugal  infidelity  and  dis- 
solutencv>  were  openly  countenanced.  In  the  royal  fam- 
i!v  were  se\erd  conspicuous  scandals,  and  among  the 
parh  ore  t  1  \  le  uJers  were  some  who  practiced  open 
core  ui        a  Idle  life  of  the  church  was  decadent:  it 

hoked  f  utli  H  d  gave  no  message  of  compelling  power. 
Seme  !!<  were  cold,  formal,  literary  disquisitions  want- 
ing in  heart,  fervor,  and  prophetic  fire.  Enthusiasm  was 
purposely  avoided  as  dangerous  and  wrong.  One  min- 
ister exhorts  against  **over-shooting  ourselves  even  in 
the  Dursints  ot  \  irtues      Whether  zeal  or  moderation  be 


Eighteenth  Century  England 


19 


I 


the  point  we  aim  at,  let  un  keep  fire  out  of  one  and  frost 
out  of  tic  other.  Miss  Wedgewood  says,  "Those 
words  are  the  motto  of  the  Church  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury/ ^  The  Methodist  and  Evangelical  movements, 
with  their  earnest  proclamation  of  the  necessity  of  con- 
cation  by  faith,  and  of  taking  the  Bible 
.  iiik:  ule  of  life,  came  not  until  in  the  later  years  of 
the  centurv  and  as  a  reaction  against  the  earlier  low 
state  of  religion  and  morals. 

In  the  Anglican  Church  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
political  views  held  and  one's  party  or  personal  con- 
nections rather  than  piety  or  fitness  of  character  for 
office  usually  determined  the  appointments  to  the  more 
important  ecclesiastical  dignities.  The  bishops  often  con- 
verted their  offices  into  sinecures  not  residing  m  their 
dioceses  and  resting  content  with  occasional  hurried  visi- 
tations, and  the  administration  at  appointed  times  of  the 
rites  of  confirmation  and  ordination.  Since  many  pa- 
rochial endowments  and  the  salaries  yielded  were  small, 
there  arose  too  the  evil  of  holding  several  benefices  by 
one  and  the  same  incunibcnt.  J  iie  "tenure  of  a  bishopric 
was  not  considered  incompatible  with  the  tenure  of  a 
deanery,  a  canonry,  or  a  prebendal  stall,''  ^^  the  church 
dignitary  drauinjr  the  incomes  from  several  holdings, 
though  having  most  of  the  work  done  by  some  under- 
paid subordinate. 

The  ignorance  of  the  masses  in  this  age  appears  in 
their  credulity  and  superstition.  They  believed  in  div- 
ination, astrology,  ghosts,  the  "royal  touch"  for  heal- 
ing and  in  the  use  of  surgery  and  charms.  Life  was  nar- 
row and  provincial,  lacking  in  intellectual  intercourse, 
travel  and  exchange  from  district  to  district.  The  roads 
in  winter  were  horrible.    Unpaved,  insecure  from  attacks 


20 


Englanits  Progress 


of  highwavnien,  and  nt  ttrrrc^  impassable  in  places  they 

prt^hibitcii     much     l-^^^-.    ncation.       1  he     iarmers, 

humble  cottaircrs.  nci  laborers  spent  their  years, 

:is  was  the   wont  of   ,..v..        "n-rs  beforv   !;U-w,   hi  agri- 
cultural   roil    or   specific   t: 


iTiairir\'  t- 


f  ^■■ 


I  I  Li  i   L 


h  and  ; 


a; 


their  \- 1  SI  ting  confined 
And  the  travels  "i 
ii  w    who   got   into 


ttic  LOiintrv  squi^o,:s-  cx,:co 
Parliruncnr,  were  iisualiv  limited  tc^  atrefidance  on  elec- 
tions and  e^rinns  a„t  the  county  seats  ■  '-'Z  public 
in  the  rural  secti(His  viais  confined  t^:  earchy  who 
took  newvrnu)eiw.  hue  the  i^reat  n.dj of  the  coun- 
try folk  ti)i'  .•eidk-^  and  wa\farcrs  were  the  news 
briniiers.       ! 

■'lat  our   ot 


the   fact   tf 


without    the    \o;'sr 


iucation  is  attested  by 
T  2,000  p      nus  there  were  3500 


c    i 


)|    a 


scho( 


Even  in   the  earlv 


years  of  t!ie  next  venturv  Londoci  riad  as  many  as  120,- 


000  ilhterate  Lhihuren,   and  **in 
nearlv    loujeH")  nnrrria,ges  were   ; 
eKO-tv   ..  -uh,i   sign    th,eir   ruuoo, 
sctyb  Marines! ei    '    • 
educatcii  cou!H  f:^-^  ••■   k     •    ■    w 
Yet   not  withstand  00c    'n,;:.'    ^:  ;, 

I  •  f T  , 'O'  '1  n    ^     (  0  •  r  !  fi  ;  r    f  h  ■  '     ■    >'  V\  '■.•''  \'     '  ]  1   1 

forward.      It  mstituO/d  !he  i  .,0- 
goe'errni'ient-      1 1  e^e  t ; •■ 


■\  i 


and   natona!   sui)|H)rt,   uui  b)    --0  . 
mistress  cd  the  sea  and  won  empire, 
coverv  of  Au-o' ,         u  w^    found  a 
kificr  the  stoif  of  a  eos.it  federatiors 

a   Hist  unnni   uith  >■  ■•       ■•  '       I*   e^  ■ 
revolutiorn    aizr-   •e*    - 


Hester  and  Salford 

■oooied  in  win  el  I  neither 

'sifngland  and  Wddr.,'' 

e  least  a    i  t 

r  features  of  its  liie, 

eral  notable  strides 

tt     od  introduced  party 

■u;s.   1  lanovcrian  line  of 

\    e  arliamentary 

It  became 

hi  a.    In  the  dis- 

that  proved  ere 

es.    It  effected 

;    tic  industrial 

to  manufacture 


r  p  )■ ) 


i  I..  I 


and  coiiinierce.     it 


US  over  France  both  in 


1 


Eighteenth  Century  I: 


•jiiMan 


I J 


Europe  and  America,  though  losing  at  Yorktown  to  the 

colonists  assisted  by  the  French  fleet.  In  the  John 
Wilkes'  struggle  it  made  notable  ad\  ances  m  liberty,— the 
rights  of  freely  publishing  parliamentary  debates,  of  con- 
stituents to  name  their  representatives  in  the  lie  of 
Commons,  and  of  security  against  general  seaief!  war- 
rants all  being  established.  In  the  realm  of  religion 
it  witnessed  the  zeal  of  the  Ai  ok  cans  for  church  building 
in  \nnr^  time;  the  activity  of  the  Fvaniielicals  later 
nan  ling  charity  schools  and  missionary  societies; 
the  noble  work  of  Robert  Raikes  in  instituting  the  Sun- 
day School  movement;  and  the  rise  and  expansion  of 
Methodism.  In  the  writings  of  John  Locke,  Joseph 
Priestley,  and  Richard  Price,  and  in  the  pronouncements 
of  Chatham  and  Fox,  it  learned  ideas  and  principles  that 
heralded  later  constitutional  and  parliamentary  reform, 
— reform  not  to  be  had,  however,  until  England  got  past 
her  fears  of  revolutionary  France  and  Jacobinism. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Sydney:  England  and  the  English  in  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 

tury, Vol.  2,  p.  113. 

2.  Sydney:  Vol.  2,  p.  117. 

3.  Sydney:  Vol.  i    n    327-328. 

4.  Sydney:  Vol.  i,  p.  245. 

5.  Lecky:  \    k  7,  p.  187. 

6.  Sydney:  V  k   i,  p.  62,  63. 

7.  Lecky:  Vol.  7,  p.  327. 

8.  Lecky:  Vol.  2,  p.  242. 

9.  Fitchett:  Wesley  and  His  Century,  p.  144. 

10.  Sydney:  Vol.  2,  p.  332. 

11.  Mathieson:    England  in  Transition  (1789-1832). 

12.  Lecky:  Vol.  7,  p.  381. 


CHAPTER  II 


EN(.i  \NDA.\D   iiii     FRENCH 

REVOLUliUxN 

1793-18  IS 


■cv. 


The  e\"crU:' 
^tion  elicited  | 
land.  >vM  r. 
were  t :  ^  :.j. 
me  fit. 
ened  by  vImI  di> 
England,  tor  a  in 
uuart.r  and  coul.i 


.}  1 


1  ;         1  ;  '1  f  ,  i   1  ) 

I    I         H.  »^  fc^  A     *-' 


1 


i.i  I   t , 


rlier  part  of  the  French  Rcvolu- 
val  rather  than  alarm  in  Eng- 
f  for  a  downtrodden  people  who 
md  constitutional   govcrn- 
dic  old  enemy,  should  be  weak- 
meant  too,   it  was  thought,  that 
least,  need  fear  no  war  from  that 
e  follow  with  safety  a  peace 


policy  and  liRiucn   the  people's  taxis.     The  fall  of  the 


^   HI 


Bastille  wa'^  nn  I  n  r      .    the 

that  had  h 

of  the  Hbertv-!o\ifi 

violence  arui  blooiisiict 

joiced  in  its  success.,      i 

niired  its  spint.  nuinw      . 

were  goodr      It  \vs!>  natural 

I 


sitest  and  best  event 
ox  was  a  champion 

nugh  sfrieved  at  the 

■    he  re- 


t      i  I  o. 


tve  symp 


miration    K'T   trie    r  vcn.n 
existed    m    hjigla:rv,1    gr.-'^  • 


aiuiaru 


tionai 
France 
views 
large  I V 

1 1,  ,11,1  a  .  V      >  -.■■■  ^.  ^  V  ^'  '■  ^- 
lid  1.1     ii     ,  ;  :  V  6  i  .  i  ^'•.'  t    ■' 

ence,    inciuuing 


1  principles 

V  and  ad- 

,;„:',     ^  :t-  ■    (or  in    .789  there 

>  economic  and  constitu- 

ection,  just  as  was  the  case  in 

t    reform,    men    of    republican 


1  and  the  political  dissent 


Li  rill  e  r 


I  rench    influence   formed 


a    be  \ 


Tally 

i.  revolu- 

ihe  'Triends  of  the  People"  society 

the  highest  respectability  and  influ- 

iiiany  members  of  Parliament  such  as 
22 


England  and  the  F 


Z'Oiiiiion 


Russell  Grey  and  Sheridan.  The  "London  Correspond- 
ence Society,"  first  formed  as  a  secret  order,  numbered 
between  6000  and  7000  members.  The  'Society  of  Con 
stitutional  Information"  consisted  of  the  more  advanced 
and  thorough-going  among  educated  men  of  radical 
views.  In  many  towns  clubs  were  formed  "aeowedly 
affiliated  to  the  democratic  clubs  in  France.'*  Among 
prominent  enthusiastic  admirers  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion were  Price,  Paine  and  Mackintosh.^  But  enthusiasm 
in  England  for  the  French  Revolution  did  not  long  con- 
tinue. As  the  movement  progressed,  exhibiting  soon  its 
violent,  anarchic  spirit,  subverting  law  and  order,  over- 
turning throne  and  altar,  and  revealing  its  intention  to 
propagate  its  ideas  in  other  countries,  English  public 
opinion  changed,  and,  influenced  by  the  views  of  Edmund 
Burke,  became  eventually  heartily  opposed  to  the  revolu- 
tion. Burke,  a  believer  in  a  highly  aristocratic  consti- 
tutional monarchy  as  the  best  form  of  government  and 
having  little  faith  in  rule  by  the  people,  was  from  first 
to  last  bitterly  hostile  to  the  experiments  of  the  French 
republicans.  In  1790  he  published  his  famous  essay 
^^Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution"  of  which  30,000 
copies  were  shortly  sold.  Burke  declared  that  "France 
was  setting  an  example  of  anarchy,  fraud,  violence  anii 
atheism."  ^  He  predicted  that  the  probable  close  of  the 
anarchy  of  the  Revolution  would  be  a  military  des- 
potism.^ He  protested  against  comparing,  as  some  were 
doing,  the  Engli  R  volution  of  1688  with  the  French 
Revolution,  and  his  advice  to  the  English  was  to  have 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  French  Constitution. 

The  conservative  views  of  Burke  in  time  prevailed 
also  with  the  English  government.  The  prime  minister, 
the  younger  Pitt,  at  first  thinking  it  probable  that  the 


a4 


Englatur^  Progress 


political  turmoil  of  France  would  issue  finally  m  estab- 

lishing  ;i  constltutjonal  nioiiarchv  approximating  Eng- 
land's in  character,  had  determined  to  follow  a  neutral 
policy  and  not  to  interfere  at  all  with  Frr    i  internal 

affairs.  He  was  iiUcrested  in  domestic  rci  jr:?!:-..  and 
hoped  !■  '  .t  !ca>t  hurr-  xritrs  of  peace  in  wiudi  to 
carry  ,  ./  •  .  ^  r  '  ■  -  ;is  of  economy  anil  rctrenrir^ 
jncrit,  I  h  l.u^Ai'.i  !.'  '  o-  1  .iicing  the  public  debt,  liirtu-' 
emng  tht:  taxes,  ahohshmg  the  slave  trade  and  hlierah/"- 
ing  I'hi.:  .:uiiHtM:uo.-'e  Tn  '^  .  -^L  1791,  he  refused  to 
}u\r\  the  l-urraKaui  [)uwcrs  iii  offering  concerted  action 
agamst  lit  i  d  ','  the  spring  of  179^  he  submitted 
a  budget  h  a  o<  1         rely  upon  a  peace  basis. 

the 
cobiiis 


r     f  ■  h 


H  )S 


i     t 


c  tin  I!  ui   events  soon  forced  Pitt  to  abandon 

'  rienidntervention.  N^i  sooner  had  the  Ja- 
1  in  control  of  Paris  and  succeeded  in  rrrrl- 
r  IS  and  Prussians,  than  it  was  made  clear 
that  tfu:  Freneli  would  nut  be  content  with  righting  their 
e)Wfi    ri^titutions,  but  believed  they  had  a  mission  to  per- 


1  n 


tirrni 
w  ell. 
c  r  e  e 


'.i 


s  a  r  I  c  s    o  i 


r lighting  the  governments  of  other  peoples 

(Ml  No.  ember  19,  1792,  they  issued  a  famous  de- 
promising    fraternity   to    all   nations    dcsiroii*?    of 
I  etters,  pamphlets  and  secret  agents  were  des- 
d  t  reel!  France  into  other  states  to  stir  up  political 

irit  o^  revolt.      'X^  a  result,  in  Liig- 
,,,    i  e    was  issued    Mey  21,    v^')!^ 

^-.  and  an  Ahen  I^di  was  pase.' 

'^foreigners  to  state  the  object 

to  enter  their  niimvs  on  a  reg- 

b^orts"  for  moving  from  place  to 

inst  further  riots,   soine  of  which 

ed  to  have  been  incited  by  emis- 

,b>   the  government  in   December, 


^  •.  \ 


;i  J  a  Ilea    Nea  t 
januare  4.  "  '    . 
ui  their-   \e-^  :   I       ? 
ister,   ufui   U;  hae'e 
place.      I'o  guard 
had  occurred,   t'^    ^ 
tfu: 


ji   -ti  «  _    _ 


Endfl^tHn 


ana 


the  French  Revolution 


2  \ 


1792,  called  out  the  mihtia.^  Pitt  soon  realized  that 
war  would  come,     t  !  h       he  revolutionists  were 

issuing  orders  to  disregard  all  trcaij  obligations,  and  to 
opcii  the  navigation  of  the  Scheldt,  which  treaty  guar- 
antees by  France  and  other  countries  had  closed,  the 
opening  of  which  could  not  but  bring  France  directly  into 
opposition  huth  to  iiolland  and  to  England;  that  they 
tea  r  ri  ited  Savoy  and  Nice;  and  that  they  occupied 
Belgium.  France  was  assuming  the  right  of  setting 
treaties  at  naught,  and  was  subverting  the  political  sys- 
tem of  Europe.  As  the  **shores  of  the  low  countries  had 
always  been  recognized  as  a  vital  part  of  the  English  de- 
fence," ^  Pitt  could  not  consent  to  their  occupation  by  the 
French  and  remonstrated.  The  French  then  declared 
war  on  England  and  Holland,  February  i,  1793.  Only 
ten  days  earlier,  on  January  21,  the  execution  of  Louis 
XVT  had  occurred  and  this  event  mightily  stirred  popu- 
lar hatred  and  passion. 

From  1793  to  181 5  warfare  between  England  and 
France  was  almost  constant.  After  the  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre and  the  Jacobins,  the  National  Democratic  Con- 
vention gave  way,  October,  1795,  to  the  rule  of  the 
Directory,  an  executive  committee  of  five  members,  sup- 
ported by  two  legislative  bodies.  The  Directory  in  turn 
gave  way  November  10,  1799  to  the  authority  of  Na- 
poleon, who,  supported  by  the  army,  made  himself  First 
Consul  and  then  Emperor,  and  was  virtually  dictator 
in  France  until  his  overthrow  in  18 15.  Under  all  these 
different  governments  France  remained  hostile  to  Eng- 
land. It  is  true  there  were  three  attempts  on  the  part 
of  Pitt  to  negotiate  peace,  in  1795,  1796,  and  in  1797, 
but  on  account  of  France's  success  at  arms  they  were 
unavailing.    The  Peace  of  Amiens,  made  with  Napoleon 


26 


England^s  Progress 


March  27,  1802,  was  only  a  truce,  for  during  the  four- 
teen nionths    tessation  of  active  hostilities  both  powers 

were  busv  str    u:  !    ning  themselves  for  approaching  con- 
flicts. 

1  norland  contended  hard  and  long  in  maintaining  the 

i  uiiii  .i  nu:  11  t;ii 


\  I   r 


\\k 


maintain;! 
the   \ 
col 


-bi 


nnciples  of  her  foreign  policy,  all  of 
ilv  assailed.  These  principles  are  (i) 
security  of  the  country  from  invasion  by 
upremacy;  (2)  keeping  the  coasts  of 
'  friendly  hands";  (3)  protecting  her 
^  India;  (5)  retaining  control  of 
the  Mcilitteranitn:  and  (6)  preserving  the  European 
Balance  of  I/uwcr  by  preventing  France  or  any  other 
state  from  getting  an  overwhelming  predominance  on 
the  Continent. 

Ihc  course  pursued  by  the  French,  especially  under  Na- 
pokriri  was  in  direct  opposition  to  all  these  principles.^ 
Napok  11  undertook,  like  Charles  the  Great,  to  subju- 
gate an  I  unipc.  Take  Alexander  the  Great,  he  sought 
i.  t  '  :.  .11!  Eastern  Empire  in  India.  Ik  sought 
to  :  1  w  to  rob  her  of  her  supremacy  in  the 

J.  11    \    t      destroy  her  commerce,   to   take   her 
and  so  to  weaken  her  that  she  should  not  be 
jh!e    tn    iluvrrt    Im    plans    for   universal    empire.      But 

igland  did:  by  hard  fought  battles  on  land 
V  liuilding  great  coalitions  of  allies  against 
hv  furnishing  millions  of  pounds  of  subsidies 
lor  supiHH  taig  the  armies  of  the  allies.  In  five  different 
years  17 /J.  i?)^  1805,  1813,  1814-15,  France  found 
herself  opposed  by  a  new  coalition  of  allies,  England 
being  the  chief  builder  and  factor  in  all  of  them.  Great 
Britain  lacked  a  well-equipped  army  at  the  first,  and  con- 
sequently the  plan  she  pursued  against   France   was  to 


V  i 


1: 


colonies 


1  1 


?i 


sea 


i»j 


England  and  the  French   Rri 


ointton 


n 


assist  the  allies  with  her  navy  and  with  money.     Eng;- 
land's  maritime  power  could  inflict  great  injury  on  the 
enemy  by  destroying  her  commerce,  blockading  her  ports, 
and  taking  her  colonies.     But  to  bring  France,  a  Con- 
tinental power,  to  terms  land  battles  had  to  be  fought, 
and  since  the  powers  of  Europe  would  fight  L;  r  'T  "T" 
land  would  help  to  pay  their  troops,  EnglanJ 
to  furnish  the  funds  and  put  their  armies  in  the  field. 
subsidizing  was  on  a  tremendous  scale.    In  tlie  nine  yt  a 
succeeding  1792  England's  public  debt  was  raised  3  v 
000,000  pounds  for  subsidizing  and  military  purpo:^^^. 
In    1793   the   Island  Kingdom  was   furnishing  subsidies 
to  Russia,  Sardinia,  Spain,  Naples,  Prussia,  Austria,  Por- 
tugal and  Tuscany. 

England  was  able  to  raise  the  money  because  B  «^h 
credit  was  good;  because  King,  Lords,  Commons  and 
people  were  united  in  purpose;  because  the  security  and 
strength  of  their  government  insured  social  order  and 
encouraged  business;  because  there  was  steady  growth 
in  trade,  manufactures,  and  commerce;  because  markets 
for  British  products  were  multiplied,  safe  trade  with 
which  was  possible  on  account  of  the  ubiquitous  English 
navy.  The  mutinies  in  the  navy  in  1797  at  Spithead  and 
at  the  A  re,  due  to  low  wages,  to  an  unfair  system  of 
pensions  and  promotion,  to  desire  for  a  larger  share  of 
prize  money,  and  to  dissatisfaction  with  certain  officers, 
were  handled  firmly,  yet  with  sympathy  for  the  sailors. 
Since  the  trouble  resulted  in  the  removal  of  abuses  which 
had  cursed  the  naval  service  for  years,  an  increasing  loy- 
alty was  produced.  Later  in  this  same  year,  1797,  when 
a  Dutch  fleet  was  gathered  across  the  channel  near  Cam- 
perdown  to  assist  France  in  a  contemplated  invasion  of 
England,    Holla        having  been  led  into   alliance  with* 


28 


EngUmd's  Progress 


England  and  the  French  Revolution 


I'rancc.  tliesc  same  crews,  so  lately  in  rebellion, ^  showed 
their  patrintisni.  by  rushing  on  tfic  Dutch  fleet  with  their 
old  time  valour  and  gaining  a  ^raiul  \ictory.^ 

I    the   alliance  of  Hol- 

Dutch  colonial  pos- 

t  lin  had  soon  taken 


iMighiricl   rca|H:d  big  gains 


land  wrrri  I'raiicc,  \m  that  riKitl 
scbSM»n    :U'''en    tc*    .itt;ick^      (ire at 


f  1 1 ,.  > 
1 1 1  *., 


St.  rticiTicnis 


'  \  s. 


'--  W-       i.4 


111   Ceylon,   and   on    tlu    Malabar 

and   the   Moluccas.      While   England 

1  the  West  Indies  and  was 

)()rti()ns  of  her  colonial  t  c- 

)y  French  agents,  on  me 

'    •■'    ^  remained  faitlifuh  as  did  India. 

.    :   m   1798.    hiriaelv   ificiied   In:   the 

sully   put    down   and    resuhc  i    in    a 

In  tween    Great    Britain    and    Ireland. 

•les  against  France  were  due  in  no  small  part 

III  inv  brave  Irishmen  in  the  ranks  of  the  army. 


tncir 

coast;    the    Ihipe; 
Slitter ed   a,!i   i'.  .  . 
troubled  liv 
pifv    'H     nsi.n  .  .  : 
wh'h.i    I  :. jh'  .'-  '   ^ 
d'lu'    -("H  h  .la   -a 
r  rei iici .    wais    siaa 
corporate    unioii 
Late  T 
to  the 


Wliili  I  nuhind  experienced  a  total  loss  of  commerce 
with  rrance.  I  iolland  and  the  Bdirian  Net!u:rl -ah,  this 
injarx  \va>  n  ae  than  counterbalanced  by  a  crease  of 
com  Tu  rce  with  Germany,  Russia  and  the  I  nited  States. 
British  rnniii'v  was  what  held  together  rhi;  cnciiiics  of 
1  ranee  wlien  offering  a  iriiited  opposition;  and  without 
those  suiisidies,  liie  French  army  might  have  conquered 
all  IcuroiHa 

hostility    to     Fngland    was     unceasing. 

though  futile,  attempts  he  made  to  de- 
when  a  general  under  the  Directory  in 


\  a , 
i  hree 
struv  her.     h  1 


I  7()S  he  scHiirht  to  rum  Great  Britain  by  blockuig  her  way 


to    ind:a    through   Egypt    and   Turkey.      ITe    landed    an 
arrnv  m   hia^vin   and   had   no  difficulty  in  getting  control 

of    this    ei)ur!!rva    ?ejt    his    progress    towarii    India    was 

blocked  at  Acre,  as  :Ma'-,u  by  Sydney  Smith  ^wiw-,'  Bona- 


I 
I 
I 


i 


I 


29 


parte  lost  nearly  5000  men,  and  his  navy  was  destroyed 
by  >^elson  111    \houkir  Bnv.,     I  {■■<  ^--r.^.A  phiri  was  to  in- 
vade England,  which  he  attempt    :        r-         He  gath- 
ered  an  army  of  150,000  men  at  iiuu     a   i    which  forces 
he  hoped  to  get  across  the  English  Chaimei  by  means  of 
the  combined  fleets  of  Spain  and  France  and  the  use  of 
a  number  of  specially  built  transports.     His  plan  was  to 
have  the  scattered  ships  of  the  French    ih    r   that   were 
shut  up  in  various  harbors  of  France  break  tne  blockade, 
and  with  the  Spanish  fleet  make  for  the  West  Indies  with 
the  hope  of  having  the  British  fleet  under  .Ncibon  fol- 
low them.     They  were  then  to  turn  back,  escaping  Xel^ 
son,  make  a  dash  for  the  English  channel,  and  hoi  : 
long  enough  to  allow  Napoleon's  transports  to  get  thch 
troops  across  to  the  island.     Part  of  the  plan   \v     kd 
well,  for  Nelson  pursued  to  the  Indies  and  the  i^rench 
fleet  under  Admiral  Villeneuve  eluded  him,  getting  back 
safely  to  the   Spanish   coast,      f^nt   there   was   delay   at 
Cadiz  for  two  months  by  Villeneuve  arid  when  he  did 
move  out   Xelson,   who  had  meantime  learned  of   the 
manoeuvre,  was  back,  met  him  in  Trafalgar  llav  and  de- 
stroyed his  entire  fleet.     Nelson  lost  his  life  in  the  lat 
tie,  but  the  victory  forever  defeated  Napoleon's  plan  of 
invading  England. 

His  third  scheme  was  to  humble  Fngiand  hv  ilestroy- 
ing  her  commerce  and  industry.  In  1806  when  his  alli- 
ance with  Russia  and  his  victories  over  neighboring 
states  had  given  him  virtual  control  of  almost  the  entire 
sea-board  of  Europe,  he  instituted  his  so-called  *'Conti- 
nental  System"  by  issuing  decrees  from  Berlin  "declaring 
the  British  Isles  in  a  state  of  blockade,  forbidding  all 
commerce  between  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  and 
the   territories  occupied  by   France   or  her  allies,   and 


10 


En^lantPs  Progress 


ordering    the    confiscation    of    all    British    merchandise 
wherever  found."  ''    Of  course  Great  Britain  retaliated, 


'dccuiniii 


he  ports  of  i  rance  and  her  allies  in  a  state 


cruhk; 


K'l  \  ',  *! ,  I  r*  t"  '"") 


it  I  I 


t  K 


lovaliv  (.)!  licr 


t'^'''i. 


iKlu  till 
t  n  u   W 


of  iX^ckade  and  neutral  vessels  trading  between  them  law- 
ful pri/ed' 

In  iius  coiiimercial  struggle,  a  sort  of  duel  by  starva- 

tlon^   l-Tigland,  in  posscssinir  a  colonial  trade  of  consid- 

advantage  cncr  !  ruue       i  he 
ould  bear  sacrifice  in  m  der  t  > 

conquered 

!-urr.pc.  p.)pular  svniunvn:  ua^  a-iiiiisi  ;-  1  drsperor. 
-Idle  peoples  of  tile  .iiticr.iir  States  undc :"  •  ..  rule  could 
scv  no  ^ood  or  riujit  ei  tin.  plan  for  personal,  selhsh 
aggrandi/enient  at  the  cost  of  ^^^ ;  ^-uch  suftenng  to  them- 
5ei  1  •  and  as  business  slackene  i  p 
shut    down,    and    connneree    ceased, 


tram    xicteiry    e)\-er    the    iiated    Xapoleoin 


j.  i 


rncnt.   puverfy,   distress 
curse    tn,e    bei  le^    i  -..  •• 
see    the    hcL^iinnng    ui 
foree    f-'eniaii^al   :ipehict 
N\'ste! r, .  In:  enannnin   *  n^ 
With  !nise>r   nu^mite'u^e- 
iie|)osi'..i   I  e.     'P  ' 
own  hr^sthtn-   !  -^ 


me  en  St  n  '  e'.    ;  ~  ■ 

led  tn  their   i\ir!n^Iin■ni;  in    i8o8   a   - 

FnirliNl'i   armv   of    ^  •^h-.,.o   troops    ^- 

...  ^     r,        ■     '  w  e.    !  '■ 

1  H  ne  KeiNSia,  iee:^o. :  j -i  ^ .  ■  -•    • 


e  factories 
unemploy- 

aju!  hunger  tin;  vcnplc  hep^an  Lu 

and  their    ah  !  fare    we 

loleon's   ruin.      An         nnt^  to 

-   v\ad,   to   join   Up.,    Lu.un:  -ntal 

aa  ,  capturcil   i/id-.n,  and  then 

r  former  assistance   rendered, 

h.  Charles  i\\  and  made  his 

lPa;i  ni"  these  acts  thoroui^hlv 
^^  y, .' ,^   ^  r\   I'efvnisida.,  aind 

(  i\{ ranee    tor   tlie 

r   Whi  ington.     In 

w  n^nlren-  from  N^a- 


poi 


i' i  ni  a 


(h)ntirn:ntal    >\  ':n, . 


a  I  ■■» 


"S    f 

troaiN    Ana 


iaun r    I ne   disas- 

,.,.w  Campaign  when  tlic  I  r    .■.  1  niperor  on 

rctrcatini'  left  on  the    ii   -    ti  plains  oi    K    -^  ^    -"■   ^rmy 

of  hall  a  r,aiionmen.     bee.u-  -s  powern(nv   ..  :•::■   -Ken, 
aU  his  toes  took  heart,  nnd  \n  i8t?  the  luu.iu  uu.c 


\ 


s 


England  an/t  the  French  Revolution 


d 


Coalition  of  th  u^^^a,  Austr'a  ^  edan  England  and  Rns- 
sia  was  forn     a     \  fiose  combined  -   overwhelmed 

him  at  Leipsic  iii  a  three  da}b  battle,  October  16-18. 
In  this  battle  \  apoleon  lost  in  killed  and  wounded  50,000 
out  of  250,000  of  his  command.  This  defeat  caused  his 
first  abdication  and  his  retirement  in  h  h  a  On  his  es- 
carhijj  fioin  f'lhn,  dispossessing  the  restored  Louis 
Will  and  seizing  again  imperial  power  in  Paris,  the 
1     r!i  hireat  Coalition  of  Great  Britan  .   K   s  \     tda 

^ru^sia  was  formed,  1814,  and  their  ninten  ^n-cn^th 


a !  I  i 


achieved  his  final  overthrow  at  the  Battle  i^t  W  n  a 
June  18,  181 5.  In  this  famous  battle,  the  British  under 
command  ot  the  Dnke  of  Wellington  lost  13,000,  the 
Ih  ussians  under  Biucher  7,000,  and  Napoleon  lost,  if 
I  risoners  be  included,  37,000  men,  over  half  his  army, 
and  also  the  whole  of  his  artillery,  ammuniticen,  hn^gcng:^ 
wagons,  and  military  train.  The  Emperor  (led  t^  the 
capital,  abdicated  a  second  time,  and  then  surrendereil 
himself  tu  the  commander  of  a  British  war-ship  the  Bel- 
lerophnn  He  wn*?  exiled  to  St.  Helena,  an  isolated 
rocky  island  belonging  to  Great  Britain  off  the  coast  of 
Africa,  where  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1821. 

After  Napoleon's  first  abdication,  the  Allies  had  re- 
stored Louis  XVIIT  to  the  throne  of  France,  made  a 
peace  treaty  an  May  30,   18 14,  and  had  assem- 

bled a  preat  irn  raa  linind  congress  at  Vienna  for  deter- 
mining a  general  peace  settlement  for  a^^  Furope.  There 
were  diplomats  and  princes  from  many  states,  but  what 
was  done  at  the  conference  was  decided  b)  the  Five 
G  '  *  h  vers,  Russia,  Prussia,  Austria  Hngland  and 
France.  Ihe  congress  continued  from  September,  18 14, 
to  June,  18 1 5,  their  final  agreement,  the  i  reaty  of 
Vienna,  being  signed   ]\mt  9,  1815,  only  a  few  days  be- 


England^  Progress 


3* 

fore  the  Batdc  of  Waterloo.    After  this  battle,  n  sec- 

oncl  treaty  was  made  with  France,  X.^^c,  :iiber  20,  im  ,;. 
11k:  settlement  required  that  the  naticni  should  }Kiy  ^-i 
war  iruieninitv  of  28,000,000  pouiuh,  that  she  shinAd 
suppcart  an  annv  of  ocaipation  for  five  years,  and  that 
the  Bourbon  Ln-^.-  X\dH  ^h(Hlld  occupy  the  throne. 
Ifi,  :     r!.,,N  the  old  lines  exlstmg  be- 

ore  w.ir    )p  ^  ^  received  not  incon- 

shlerabic  i^ain.      W  ^^  ^  ^vas  returned  to  the  Dutch, 

she    kept'lh'e      ^     '      ^         ^   s   St.    Lueui,    Ceylon,    and 
Capt*   C  fuonv   1 
M 


iterranean    evas 


and  her  position  in  the 
i^d  by   the   retention   of 


REFERENCES 


^  «  !  t-"1  ^ 


r,f    ^ 


•  ind,  Vol.  1689-1837,  P-  li^O- 
.  Policy  of  Great  Britain,  p.  59- 


3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

8. 


itical  History^  of     England,  Vol.   10, 


1.  Bright:  11'^^' 

2.  Harrisoi 

Leckv :  \ • . 
Hunt  a:M    1' 

1 
'  'p.  403. 

.589-1839,  P-  "68. 
-       I{  istory  of  Foreign  Policy  of  Great  Britain,  p.  1 70. 
ows:  History  of  Foreign  Policy  of  Great  Britain,  p. 

9.     Hunt  and  Poole:  Vol.  10,  p.  378. 
10.      i    iry:  History  of  England,  p.  965. 


V 


ies  aoti  ti 


¥()%'. 


rid 


CHAPTER  III 

ERA  OF  REACTION    \ND  REPRESSION 

1815-1821 

The  A]''ej  Powers  at  tlie  Coni^ress  of  Vienna  in  1515 
in  their  settlement  of  the  peace  of  Europe  after  the  fall 
of  Napoleon  made  one  capital  mistake,  namely — not  tak- 
ing into  account  w'lwn  changing  the  boundari 
ernments  of  states  the  sentiments,  predlleeti 
wills  of  the  people  affected  by  such  alterations.  It  was 
for  this  reason  mainlv  that  so  much  i  1  the  work  el  diat 
Congress  did  not  prove  permanent.  \  i)rding  to  the  de- 
crees of  the  Congress  France  was  ever  to  be  a  monarchy 
undt  r  the  absolute  rule  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty;  Teu- 
tonic Holland  and  French  Belgium  were  to  form  a  single 
kingdom  under  the  rule  of  the  House  of  Orange;  Lom- 
bardy  and  Venetia  were  given  to  Aubina,  and  Austria 
was  to  remain  the  ruling  power  in  Germany  and  italv; 
as  to  the  Italian  states,  Genoa  was  handed  over  to  Sar- 
dinia, the  central  ecclesiastical  provinces  were  restored 
to  the  rule  of  the  Papacy,  and  Naples  au  1  ^iclh  were 
placed  again  under  the  former  Bourbon  nrasters  But 
all  this  has  since  been  changed.  France  proclaniied  m 
1870  the  Third  Republic  which  still  ixists:  Holland  and 
Belgium  separated  in  1830  and  each  set  up  an  indepen- 
dent kingdom  for  itself.  Lombardy  with  the  assistanee  (  1 
Fren vh  arms  ni  1859  and  Venetia  with  the  military  aid 
of  Prussia  and  Sardinia  in  1866  threw  off  the  Austrian 
yoke;  the  present  Italian  Kingdom  first  proclaimed  in 

as 


34 


England's  Progress 


1 86  f  had  incorporated  by  1870  every  «tate  in  the  whole 

peninsula,:  arui  bine-   in:*^   P'■■u^s:;i,  imh   Austria,  ha.s  been 
the  leader  in  ^  leni 
tions  conci'Tiicd  h:i 


;■'  s . 


H 


Euroi 


nicntb  dill  riiit  iaN!\      i  ' 

at  \'ienn,a  la  he)  red  under  th^ 

could  come  ou'  -'   :}ie  Fren^ 

a  eliief"  aetie*  in  the  Conscre-. 

ti\-e   ihiere   h*  "    ^      '   the    :e  -' 

the    Duke    t  t     W  -  •     >       nn 


J/niklland   ^inedd   !^f 


'B 


u'  w^isiies  la!   the  popina- 
:  'hi'  arrange- 
:esmen  and  princes 
:  r    'Oso  that   lus   inniA 
eh  en,      hinirh.iruj  'wais 
Vienna,  her  representa- 
•  (  astlereagii  and  later 
^   Tories.     That 
n  of  liberty 
and   pnpukir   rights   is   uistified  hv   much  ui   her  history, 
Init  at  this   i  uiiirress  the  nation  did  not  appear  m  that 
!ig!it       I  he  g  vemment  was  eager  to  conclude  as  soon 
as  possible  a  peace  settlement  which  would  be  generally 
aatisfacturv  fa*  thie  otlier  Great  Powers  and  which  wnihd 
therefore  1      hi         last  for  some  years,  and  in        ha 
this  site  acin  ded  sanction  and  support  to  several  illiberal 
and   unpatriotic   schemes.     The  giving  of  two-fifths   of 
the    King  hen   uf  Saxony  to   Prussia,   the  estabUshmcnt 
of    \ustruin   rule  in  Italv,  the  acquisition  of  Poland  by 
Russui  anti  Prussh^  fl-    ut-ng  off  nl  Nen-wav  trom  Den- 
Sweden,  and  other  like  acts  of 
li  which  the  rights  of  nationalities  and  peo- 
were  sacrificed  te^  the  selfish  interests  oi  particular 
(r.^vrnrnents,  were  all  acquiesced  in  ^■''-    ^ 

The  responsibihty   lor  her  share  ^^ary 

and  rcpressi\a:  measures  of  the  Congress  restb,  La;;.;gii, 
on  her  aristocracy  and  Tory  ministry  mainly  for  in   i  ^  i  ^ 
the  1  niiHsh  government  was  by  no  means  represi 
Of"  t!ie  wln/de  nation.     George  IV  as  Regent  durcci^  in;; 


nui  ■as.   a  n  t  i 
the  Cong- 


pu;. 


inentai 


t-'t 


aicainuatv  o 


{  1521 


ij  "■"■■    i    <!)  ^  U 


/  J 


f  his  father  ( 181 1-1820),  and  a^  Kino- 
cuntinued  in  power  the  Tories.  iHi    be 


I 


'/ 


Era  of  Kr action  and  Repression 


35 


Minister  was  Lord  Liverpool,  a  most  bitter  opponent  of 

constitutional  reform.  The  Lord  Chancellor  was  Lord 
Eldon.  who  de\'oted  his  great  intenectuai  powers  to  ob- 
structing ail  changes  in  the  law  that  te ndvd  to  equalize 
the  political  status  of  different  classes:  :  !     i  in  Secre- 

tar\'  was  len-d  bidinouth,  an  unprogressivc  ^ oot c ^e n a, n  oi 
medi  t  oh  a  ^[iQ  had  been  a  highly  favored  mmister 
of  tin    d    :      al  King  George  III;  the  "secretary  of  For- 


Affairs  was  Lord  Castlereagh  tii 


jm  no  one 
e  day.    The 


was  more  hated  by  the  leading  Liberals 
Toryism  of  such  a  minist  ,  was  less  int  g  less  lib- 
er d,  and  more  violent  than  the  Toryism  of  tiie  govern- 
ment HI  the  earlier  venr<5  of  the  century,  well  represented 
in  Whlhani  P'm    w  s  kept  from  undertaking  needed 

political  r  0  ms  by  the  necessity  of  carrying  on  foreign 
wars;  or  tinm  the  later  Toryism  of  men  like  George 
Canning,  Sir  Robert  Peel  and  Huskisson  who  came  to 
influence  about  1822,  and  who  championed  the  ideas  of 
social  and  economic  reforms.  From  18 15  to  1820  a 
Toryism  that  identified  reform  with  revolution,  and  that 
enacted  legislation  of  a  deliberately  reactionary  form 
ruled  supreme.  This  force  it  was,  and  not  a  freely  ex- 
pressed national  sentiment,  that  was  rcsrnn^^iMe  for  the 
role  played  by  England  at  the  Congre^  ana. 

As  to  domestic  affairs,  the  three  decades,  1 800-1 830, 
of  f  (  ry  oox  ernment  have  been  termed  the  'period  of 
legislative  quiescence"  ^  by  which  designation  is  meant 
that  in  this  period  politically  no  material  improvement  or 
amendment  was  made  in  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
land.  In  general  the  character  of  the  laws  passed  in 
these  years  was  either  reactionary  or  paternal;  the  meas- 
ures did  not  contemplate  any  increase  of  political  power 
for  the  people,  but  on  the  contrary  sought  to   weaken 


3^ 


England^s  Progress 


their  influcficc  in  governmental  affairs  through  attempt- 
ing either  tu  alhiv  popular  discontent  by  humanitarian 
tie  itineni  or  to  suppress  by  force  their  means  ot  politi- 
cal agitiition       10  be  sure  the  body  oi  fundamental  law 

needed  re\isirjri.  tlie  legal  abuses  being  evident,  numerous 
and  gra  VI  ;  but  the  party  in  control  felt  that  prudence  nec- 
esMtated  leaving  everything  just  as  it  stood  rather  than 
to  \entiirc  am  ifinovatiuii  sought  by  those  whose  loudest 
el  tninur  was  for  parliamentary  reform  in  the  direction 
of  deifio  racy.  Tfu  v  were  heartily  supported  in  this 
position  bv  the  titlcii  nobility,  tiie  higher-placed  clergy- 
iTiari,  arul  the  opulent  aristocrat  who  held  a  verv  opti- 
mistic \ie\v  id  the  structure  of  the  English  government 


-•If  f  1 1 


ii   1   4   V.i 

tact  tiiat 


I   fig 


o  1 


lishmen  ought  to  be  satisfied  with  the 
ei.ioved  greater  liberties  than  the  subjects 

til,    luAii'  ^-      ;  states.     They  passed  in 

till,  e  a  -    t    d  res  of      :    mane  character,  forbid- 

ding the  "sht\r  trade  in  ibuu,  abolishing  liiu  piUory  in 
18  lb,  vMaduliiting  the  whipping  of  women  in  1820,  pen- 
ah/lng  wurl  V  to  animals  in  1822,  prohibiting  the  use 
c>!  N['r!ng  L!  i!iN  a  1827,''  ^  and  placing  regulations  on  the 
ein;d«>"v  m.  ■ 


acts    i  ! 
the\    e\t; 
to  lessen 


^■  ( 


t  hdicM  ill  factories  in  the  health  and  moral 

isic).    1S25,   1829  and   1831:  but  while 


to  restr 


11  the  enactment  of  these  laws  a  desire 
s  I  If  as  they  could  suffering  and  pain  for  the 
I  they  showed  at  the  same  time  their  readiness 
popular  rights  and  privileges  by  passing  such 

reactioiiar)    hvvs  as  the  Combination  Act  of  1800  and 

the  Six  Acts  of  18 19. 

Idle  C  aid  ination  Act  reveals  clearly  enough  that  the 
interest  ot  employers  of  labor  were  better  represented 
in  Ihirliament  in  1800  than  the  interest  of  working  men. 
it  was  a  severe  statute,  aimed  especially  at  the  suppres- 


ii 


Era  of  Reaction  and  Ah 


fs,  f  /» 


37 


aion  of  strikeft,  trade  unions,  and  every  sort  of  condMna- 

tion  arracui:  workmen  which  soiiglit  to  advance  u-ages  or 
to  better  a  as  of  employment.  Taken  along  with 
the  law  of  conspiracy  already  on  the  statute  books,  this 
act  virtually  meant  that  any  "artNari  who  organized  a 
strike  or  joined  a  trade  union  was  a  criminal  and  liable 
on  conviction  to  imprisonment;  the  strike  was  a  crime, 
the  trade  union  was  an  unlawful  association.*'  ^  The 
theory  of  the  law  was  that  laborers  and  artisans  must 
be  contented  with  the  customary  rate  of  wages,  and  never 
use  the  pressure  of  numbers,  nor  organize  offering  com- 
mon resistance,  nor  do  anytiiing  in  fact  together  with  the 
purpose  of  forcing  their  employers  to  raise  their  pay 
Combinations  were  objectionable  to  the  government  too 
because  they  suggested  the  revolutionary  clubs  of 
France.  It  was  the  dread  of  sedition  and  rebellion  that 
inspired  also  the  passing  of  the  Six  Acts  of  18 19.  These 
measures  aimed  among  other  things  to  prevent  political 
gatherings  and  mass  meetings  among  the  common  folk; 
to  stop  through  severe  penalties  so-called  seditious  writ- 
ings and  organizations;  to  curtail  the  right  of  public 
discussion;  to  forbid,  unless  under  supervision  of  the 
civil  authorities,  the  training  of  persons  to  the  use  of 
arms  and  to  the  practice  of  military  evolutions;  and  to 
check  the  circulation  of  certain  cheap  newspapers  by  the 
imposition  of  stamp  duties.  The  A  ^  ^or  preventing  the 
assembling  of  seditious  gatherings,  so  restricted  the  right 
of  holding  piibh'c  meetings  for  the  iowar  classes  as  to 
make  the  r  p  t  valueless.  It  allowed  **meetings  of  coun- 
ties called  by  the  lord  lieutenant  or  sheriff;  meetings  for 
corporate  towns  called  by  the  mayor  .  .  .  ;  and  meet- 
ings called  by  five  or  more  justices  of  the  peace,"  but  with 
these  exceptions,  it  forbade  all  meetings  for  the  consid- 


38 


England's  Progress 


eration  of  grievances  in  Church  and  State,  or  for  the 

piirf)osc  of  preparing:  petitions,  except  in  the  parishes  (or 
townships,  wlicre  parishes  arc  div\di:A  'nt.^  townships) 
where  the  individuals  usually  reskle;* 


x 


■It,  -is  .    ! 


actioU    resilient    eould    attenil    sueli    ■'    ^■' 


\'"  U  U  :  V      I 


.  ■-  i-. 


f  "\ 


tiec  of  such  meetings  had  tei  he  iilvvn  hv  se\oo 
inhahitaiits  to  a  neighboring  magistrate,  wK:.  l-■-■^e^M^J 
the  tliscretionarv  power  of  forbidding  it  aoevo'^-ther  if  he 
hkevh  Nei  pers(*n  bearini^  weapons  or  ;o:!n--rs  could 
attend  such  a  iiieetiriL^.  Thus  the  lower  cia-...  ^  ,-:,T?  he 
kept  strictU-  to  tlic  snial!  parish  meetduio,  and  from 
these    assenihlics    all    itinerant    orators,    rueng    strangers, 


\d  be   exeh,.ided;  and  since   at   the   time,    iSip,   nianv 


wanuc 

waoihhv   anij    popular  town-,    sueii    as    Xhmchester,    Bir^ 
mirmliani   and   Sheffield  wf"     o>*t    iiuorp.;  aiU-d   and  also 

w  1  re  denied 

u   t''   *]ieir 


!    t  1 


[iad  nu   representative  in    ;     '       w- 
tlic    orde    rrieari^    tfiey   ha         : 
trriexauwcs  and  needs,     d  his  unfair 

i  •       ' ,        1  .r     ..    .       C- 


^  we\'u 


Its 


I 


1  -    e\:  !wn    in. 


to    iz:\  . 

t  v*nu  .[ou 


a    ^<  cue  e,  i . 


<■»< 


0     . 1  e  , ,  1 1  i  L ' J 

I   *}n    .v  \    dissat  .H  i 


vs  it  is  necessary 

of   the     a  1 

*  i*-c    n(    '    ■ '      ••  d 


I  e 


K.    I  I 


\ 


•  1  i  A 


r,'?!*      ■'.I 


(  '  ( 


f\  (  \p:-esMon"H  w  fuin  rujt  ^-^  -.Oroo 
pea,ee  was  OKuie  in  l8l^  there  followed  in  In, 
time  of  Lincxamphd  distress  notwithstanding 
tional  expectation  that  the  cessation  of  hostiliticb  wouk! 
inaugurate  an  era  of  remarkable  prosperity.  The  causes 
iur  thi>  unusual  state  of  wide-spread  economic  depres- 
sion and  eofisciiuent  uiihappiness  are  not  far  to  seek. 
Thc  enormous  expenditures  of  the  government  for  wir 
supplies  of  every  sort  for  so  many  years  had  furnished 


Era  of  Reaction  and  Repression  39 

a  new,  profitable,  but  artificial  market  for  the  products 
of  farm  and  factory.  The  government  was  not  only 
spending  millions  of  borrowed  monev  on  its  own  army 
necessities,  but  \\a>  knnJmu:  also  immense  sums  to  her 
allies  for  provisions  and  military  stores.  During  the 
last  year  of  the  war  the  government  throus^h  taxation 
or  loans  had  raised  170,000,000  pounds,  f  I m  national 
debt  had  amounted  to  the  prodigious  sum  of  m  ^,049 
pounds.^     These  lavish  outlays  of  money  i   an 

abnormal  inflation  of  prices,  which  led  manv  nranufac- 
turers  and  undertakers  engaged  in  agricultural  trade  to 
extend  their  operations  on  borrowed  capital  and  at  heavy 
initial  expenses,  hoping  to  realize  big  profits  on  their 
ventures  by  selling  in  a  rising  market.  Considerable 
impetus  and  advantage  were  given  British  industries  and 
commerce  by  the  suspension  of  manufactures  in  parts  of 
the  Continent  where  hostile  armies  came,  and  by  the  sus- 
pension of  commerce  caused  by  Napoleon's  restrictive 
trade  regulation  which  forbade  free  commercial  inter- 
course and  access  to  natural  markets  England's  territory 
was  free  of  battles  and  hostile  armies,  and  therefore 
the  peaceful  life  of  plough  and  loom  proceeded  without 
interruption.  5u  Ine  as  the  war  lasted  ail  hand^  willing 
to  work  in  some  industry  could  find  employment.  In 
spite  of  the  prohibitions  of  the  Continental  System,  a 
well  organized  contraband  trade  flourished.  British 
shipowners  w^ere  prospering  and  were  fast  getting  con- 
trol of  the  carrying  trade  of  the  world.  English  exports 
in  1792  were  valued  at  27,000,000  pounds;  but  in  18 15 
at  58,000,000  pounds. 

Sericulture  yielded  enormous  profits  for  some  years. 
So  im^h  was  the  general  level  of  prices  for  wheat  in  par- 
ticular that  many  men  of  the  adventurous,  speculative, 


40 


En^lamPs  Process 


and   spcruithntt 

I  1  1  C         Cti  It.    [    L*  4  'r   ' 

under  riit*  p!-  '..^ 
profitable  t**  t  ! 
crop  after  ■ 
great  exhau 
interest  'jI 
i\ck  V 'y'^'d  r\ 


\  I 


)n 


*    i,   ,3  k 


cntere^l    on    fanning,   substituting 
\  ators.     They  brought 
i  formerly  felt  to  be  un- 
1       r. is  I.J   ;       1    judgment  they  took 
irrrf]  the  same  piece  of  ground  to  the 
r  t  the  soil,  and  abandoned  in  the  sole 

i     prrHlucing    grain    many    advantageous    and 
loon     uf  husbandry.     The   deficiency  of   the 
.    lu  years  and  the  constant  demands  of  war 
greatlv  hci^htcneJ  the  price  of  corn  (that  is  wheat  and 
breadstufih).      During  the  closing  years   oi    ihe  conflict 
the  price  ui   wiie at  was  at  times  double  what  it  was  in 
the  openini?  year.      1  he  inilation  was  due  to  exceptional 
demand,  to  temporary  scarcity  and  monopoly.    With  the 
return  to  natural  conditions  at  the  close  of  the  war  this 
inflation  larijrely  disappeared,  the  price  of  wheat  for  three 
vears  \  aryuig  irenerallv  from  6o  s.  to  8o  s.  instead  of 
from  90  s.  to  1  2L>  s.  and  the  lowered  market  meant  heavy 
losses  for  those  who  had  projected  their  enterprises  on 
the   tath  of  the  continuance  of  high  prices.     The  land 
owners   as  a  class,  were,  however,  protected  considerably 
by  the  corn  laws.     Pressed  by  the  powerful  landed  in- 
terests, ail  i  accepting  their  doctrines  that  agriculture  wa,s 
the  true  ba.i       1  national  strength,  and  that  from  a  mili- 
tary 0  1    V  'a  was  not  safe  to  allow  the  country 
to  ul  ;u  !ui  DM  its  neighbors  for  food-supply.  Parliament 
pasMoi   1  Liw  in  1815  that  practically  prohibited  the  im- 
portation of  foreign  grain  until  the  price  of  wheat  in 
Fni^^baiiJ    had   reached   at   least    80   shillings   a   quarter. 
After  ih  s  hew  had  been  in  effect  for  some  time,  the  '*slid- 
ing  scak      acts  were  passed  which  established  a  system 
01  varviiii^  taritis,  so  that  when  the  price  of  home  grown 
wheat  rose  alcove  a  definite  figure  the  duty  on  imported 


I 

I 


Era  of  Reaction  and  Repession  41 

wheat  was  to  sink  pra)portionaiiy.  Bio-  the  com  laws 
were  vicious  in  principle,  and  did  more  harm  than  good. 
W  hatever  benefit  the  wheat  growers  received  was  given 
at  the  expense  of  the  m?  sumers  of  the  whale  nation. 
I"  to  put  more  money  in  the  corn  grower's  pocket 

the  government,  in  excluding  by  hiw  foreign  grain,  was 
making  bread  scarce  and  dear  for  all  the  rest  of  the 
people.  Money-making  for  the  landowners  after  ttris 
method  meant  for  the  poor  hunger  and  suffering.  The 
measures,  too,  made  prices  more  variable:  and  the  more 
frequent  and  uncertain  the  fluctuation  in  prices,  the  more 
rife  was  speculation,  and  the  greater  were  the  risks  taken 
and  the  losses  incurred.  These  violent  fluctuations 
brought  disaster  to  many  farmers.  Overwhelmed  with 
debt  they  had  to  suspend  or  limit  their  operations  which 
involved  discharging  their  laborers  who  were  added  to 
the  increasina;  class  of  the  needy  unemployed. 

The  commercial  classes  experienced  likewise  serious 
disappointments  and  financial  losses.  Not  a  few  enter- 
prising commercial  men,  believing  that  the  continental 
demand  for  English  exports  when  peace  came  would 
be  twice  as  great  as  it  was  in  war,  and  desiring  to  share 
in  the  prospective  profits,  transferred  money  from  legiti- 
mate and  lucrative  trade  to  the  purchase  of  colonial 
produce  for  exportation.  They  overlooked  the  fact  that 
the  continent  had  been  greatly  impoverished  bv  the  long 
war  and  that  as  a  consequence  it  did  not  have  the  means 
to  obtain  the  English  goods.  France,  Russia,  Spain  and 
Germany  had  experienced  such  a  drain  on  their  resources 
by  the  final  struggles  of  18 14-15  that  they  lacked  money 
for  necessities.  The  export  trade  suffered  a  reduction 
of  16%,  and  the  import  trade  nearly  20%,  which  de- 
cline involved  numerous  bankruptcies,  and  the  wholesale 
dismissal  of  working  people.     The  Continent's  revival 


4a 


England  ^  Progress 


Era  of  Rear! inn  and 


p  c  c  .»  /-)  tt 


43 


of  domestic  industries  lessened  the  foreign  demand  also 
for  British  nuinutactured  goods;  and  the  iron  and  textile 

iridustrics  of  I'Jigland  cspecialW  suffered  when  the  gov- 
ernment discontinued  its  purchases  for  miUtary  purposes. 
The  price  of  iron  fell  from  20  to  10  pounds. 

The  condition  of  the  lower  working  classes  was  most 
distressful.  J  \in  in  times  oi  general  business  pros- 
perity they  lia  i  not  received  a  fair  subsistence  wage. 
Manv  of  then:!  liad.  to  iiavc  assistance  out  of  the  parish 
poor  rates.  A  vicious  system  of  poor  relief  made  it  pos- 
sible f(o  employers  of  laborers  to  pay  lo^\  wages,  ihe 
v.()rk  people  were  beinor  thrown  out  of  employment  also 
from  tfie  Md^^touiion  of  noiehinc  labor  for  hand  laiior 
in  the  factories.  The  ranks  of  the  unemployed  were 
swollen  too  In  i^reat  accessions  of  the  disbanded  soldiers. 
In  r!u  \e  !r>  lietween  1814  and  1816  there  were  500,000, 
and  ID  the  vears  {S16-17-19  there  were  250,000  men 
rcitabed  Iruin  the  army  and  navy.  With  the  close  of 
the  war  there  came  too  a  severe  winter  and  a  deficient 
harvest,  which  made  foodstuffs  very  le  u  To  the  year 
1817  i^irliament  authorized  an  expenditure  of  750,000 
pounds  f  o  employing  the  laboring  poor  on  public  works. 

The  general  discontent  and  misery  of  the  people  gave 
riN  :=uuii  to  popular  disturbances  of  anarchic,  violent 
character,  such  as  brea  iri  ts.  the  smashing  of  machinery, 
nmg  of  the  hay-ricks.  1  lere  and  there  fac- 
stores  were  broken  into,  and  occasionally 
ni^frt  atraeks  were  made  on  the  houses  of  magistrates 
and  huuiior  is  High  rents,  which  had  advanced  70%, 
u  r  I  eliK  f  eiuse  of  the  popular  hatred  for  the  latter 
chi^^  1  li  landlords  with  their  families  were  compelled 
ir^,  sr-!ie  cases  to  abandrni  theo"  houses  for  a  nioe  m  order 
to  5a\  e  themselves  from  the  fury  of  angry,  hungry  mobs. 


■a 


In  June,  1817,  the  carriage  of  the  unpopular  dissolute 
Prince  Regent  was  attacked.  Now  and  then  a  town 
fell  into  the  hands  of  a  mob  and  the  tumult  could  only  be 
suppressed  by  calling  out  the  military  forces.  In  the  cides 
appeared  frequent  threatening  assemblies  of  artisans 
and  agricultural  laborers  who  were  clamouring  aloud 
for  employment  and  for  reduction  in  prices  of  meat  and 
grain.  In  the  cries  of  these  people  was  not  heard  at  the 
first  a  demand  for  polidcal  reform:  in  pain  and  want 
they  blindly  called  aloud  for  material  relief  with  no 
care  or  plan  as  to  how  the  aid  should  come.  But  before 
long  the  noise  and  tumult  ui  the  ignorant  masses  had 
aroused  the  political  interest  of  a  few  intelligent,  thought- 
ful, public-spirited  men  above  them  who  better  under- 
stood what  conditions  were  wrong  in  the  nation's  life, 
and  who  soon  gave  to  the  people's  ''plaint  a  distinct  tone 
and  a  definite  purpose.'*  To  William  Cobbett,  must 
be  given  chief  credit  of  having  given  a  political  turn 
to  the  discontent  and  unhappiness  of  the  people  Cob- 
bett was  iiot  a  man  of  the  college-bred  type,  who  had 
had  his  head  crammed  with  various  theories  of  political 
science  and  constitutional  systems;  but  he  did  know  life. 
He  was  a  man  of  the  people,  had  been  a  soldier  in  the 
army  serving  in  Canada,  had  been  a  bookseller  in  New 
\uir.  and  Philadelphia,  and  had  traveled  widely,  iic 
acquired  an  excellent  mastery  of  the  1  ngiish  language 
and  achieved  success  as  an  editor,  lie  established  a 
periodical  called  *The  Weekly  Political  Register"  in 
which  he  anrncd  that  most  of  the  evils  that  Enghshmen 
then  complained  of  were  to  be  attributed  directly  and 
almost  altogether  to  a  bad  system  of  government.  The 
price  of  his  paper  was  reduced  from  a  shilling  to  two 
pence  in  18 16,  and  at  once  it  became  an  authority  with 
the  laboring  classes.    It  circulated  over  the  whole  coun- 


44 


EnqUnfi  Progress 


trv  an.!  was  read  in  shop  nnd  cottage.  1!^^  cure  for 
the  L-\ils  of  the  time  was  simply  to  reform  i  :'  li-nr^t. 
lie  vanud  unixersal  suffrage,  annual  parliament-.,  cic- 

_  d  •         «  *  1 


1--    l.ilu.t,   and  only   a   single  legislative   cha;.  ..  ■• 
v.,„u    of  his  demands  were  far  ahead  of  the  times    but 


*^'on    iiv    iKiiii^ 


his    \Vl)!'k     Wll: 


tl: 


c 


i  rouiilKinu 


i 


I  .ord 

y-%  Y"  i  >  ■  \  ,  t 
I  •  1  V  ■  I  *•  "^^  i 

(  I  r  i:  \' . 

been 

rcf'orni    >h  I-  !!*e 
after   tluit    u  :i 
cades,  tliev  liail 
tt)r  an   infant 


T 


■  F  !   ^''1  ;"  r 


beginning  of  a  great  agitation  which 

r!it    L^reat   Reform   Bill  of    1832   was 

s  and  promoters  of  reform  were 

,,..^...   ..    Ml    irancis    Burdett,    Samuel    Whit- 

orJ  Cochrane,  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  Charles  Earl 

11  Russell.     Some  of  these  men  had 

House  of  Commons  Parhamentary 

n,:   war  opened  in   1783;  but  now 

1,  havinrr  lasted   over  two   de- 

i  period  almost  long  enough 

r,  to  V.U.S   to  the  stature  of  a  man 

before  that  most  reasonable  demand  was  gamed. 

IV.  the  Tory  ministers,  Liverpool,   Castlereagh  and 
II  Ion  the  demaruJs  possible  to  be  made  on  England  after 
ice  settlement     n   \  n  n  la,  just  as  the  dangers  to 
c  country  had  been  exposed  when  conductmg  the 
\    ^uod  reason   for  refusing  to  introduce 
nower  in  the   government,      in  their 
ion  of  Great   Britain  as  a  sort  of  pro- 
nent  had  to  be  sustained.     Times 
ris  deemed  possible  that  at  any 
o  t    be  called  upon  to   act  with 

ill  L  Kb  nag  some  contest  between  Con- 
tinental pinvxrs  Thev  feared  too  popular  discontent^  at 
home.  Iherefore  their  plans  at  the  first  for  contmumg 
rhe  war  taxes  and  keeping  on  foot  an  army  of  150,000 
men  in  time  of  peace  But  the  Whigs  and  Radicals  m- 
terpreted  the  lory  policy  m  conjunction  with  the  treaties 


th,t 

\\'ar,    UirniNhi 

n  H  ?  :    V        •  )  ; 

teetur    k-\    *'■.: 
"we re    pinn  1 1  -u: 

rninnent    the 

1  "^    e  .  t" 

an    nei 


li 


T.ra  of  Reaction  and  Repression 


4> 


entered  into  at  tlic  Congress  of  Vienna  to  mean  that 
the  government  intended  to  raise  England  into  a  great 
military  power,  and  for  the  bad  purpose  too  of  interfering 
on  the  c  n  nent  to  guarantee  sovereigns  there  against 
the  triumph  of  democracy  in  their  territories:  so  they 
began  eigorous  opposition,  and  in  18 16  raised  the  cry: 
*Teace,  Retrenchment  and  Reform.''  By  flooding  Par- 
liament with  petitions  that  exhibited  the  universal  hos- 
tility of  the  country  to  the  proposed  continuance  of  cer- 
tain income  and  property  taxes  first  laid  on  for  war 
purposes,  they  succeeded  in  defeating  in  Parliament  the 
Tory  ministry  on  that  score.  The  ministers  were  hi 
also  to  cut  down  the  army  and  navy  to  the  hnvest  hinit 
consistent  with  national  security.  In  the  interest  of  eco- 
nomy, they  announced  in  18 17  that  the  Regent  resigned 
to  the  public  one-fifth  of  his  whole  receipts,  amounting  to 
50,000  pounds  a  year,  and  they  passed  several  acts  the 
object  of  which  was  to  get  rid  of  many  useless    bTices. 

But  while  the  Tories  yielded  somewhat  to  the  Whigs' 
demands  for  peace  and  retrenchment  in  that  they  cut 
down  the  war  taxes  and  made  considerable  reduction 
in  governmental  expenses,  they  were  for  some  years  dead 
set  against  all  proposals  for  political  reforms.  The  min- 
istry seemed  to  think  that  every  society  and  gathering  of 
the  people  where  reform  was  discussed  had  hidden  within 
it  a  treacherous  conspiracy  against  the  government.  Just 
after  the  carriage  of  the  Prince  Regent  was  attacked 
in  18 17  two  secret  committees,  one  from  the  I  louse  of 
Commons  and  one  from  the  House  of  Lords,  were  ap- 
pointed to  inquire  into  the  general  state  of  the  political 
unrest.  The  House  Committee  declared  that  revolu- 
tionary clubs  were  organized  all  over  the  country.  The 
Lords  Committee  likewise  reported  the  existence  of  a 


46 


England's  Progress 


Era 


u . 


KciiciiuH  and  Repression 


irreit  net  work  of  societies,  which  pretended  to  be  work- 

"•.rr   i..r   P^,r]:-inu-nr  irv  reform  but  were  really  militant 


nil!'      ti'T 


reform 


1  ri    ?  ■) 


■'  i.  )  S  ! 


re  really  militant 

.,.  ^  ..  J  .  and  were  doing  their  best  "to  mfcct  the  minds 
of 'all  classes  with  the  spirit  of  disaffection  and  a  con- 
tcmrt  or  1  nv  religion,  and  morality/'  «  As  a  matter  of 
fiKt  tiu  arganizations  were  merely  peaceful  dcbatmg  so- 
cKt its  CM  literary  clubs  where  politics  and  reform  were 
discussed.  1  la  innocent  marching  in  procession  and 
the  occasional  drilling  of  awkward  labourers  to  keep  step 
and  in  line  when  assembling  in  the  big  out-of-door  mass 
meetlnas  wa.  the  military  feature  inspiring  so  much  fear. 
The  strikes,  riots  and  even  occasional  feeble  attacks  on 
governmental  authority  were  only  impressive  manifesta- 
tions  nf  ocncrai  destitution  and  distress;  yet  they  were 
conshlerca  by  the  ministry  to  be  convincing  signs  of 
a    I  icobin  conspiracy  to  overthrow  the  monarchy. 

It  is  true  that  the  discovered  Cato  Street  affair,  Feb. 
23  1820,  whose  chief  instigator  was  a  violent  radical, 
Arthur  Thistlcwood,  was  a  genuine,  murderous  plot  to 
assassiiaiie  the  whole  ministry  while  at  a  Cabinet  dinner, 
and  I  h  sib  wood  and  four  of  his  accomplices  justly  paid 
for  it  with  their  lives;  but  the  Spa  Fields  gathering  of 
Dec  2,  1816,  the  Derby  insurrection  of  June  10,  1817, 
an  ithe  Bonnvmuir  rising  in  Scotland,  April  3,  1820,  con- 
nected  uith  each  of  which  was  rioting  and  the  fatal 
shooting  of  somebody,  were  expressions,  neither  surpj-is- 
iiiir   nor  u 


ifiLi'  a,' 


..nnatural  of  misguided  ignorant  classes  suffer- 
tc  economic  distress.    The  appeal  to  the  insurgent 


\\  a  b 


"Nb    bloody  soldier  must  he  dread;        ^^ 
He  must  turn  out  and  fight  for  bread. 

In  dealing  with  these  uprisings  the  government  em- 


ployed  but  one  method,  coercion,  believing  transgressors 
guilty  of  "levying  war  against  the  king."  Its  illiberal, 
unsympathetic  attitude  and  policy  were  well  revealed  in 
the  Peterloo  incident. 

Or  M  lay,  Aug.  16,  18 19,  there  assembled  on 
St.  let  r  r  i  .LiJj  Manchester,  a  peaceful  mass-meeting, 
numbering  in  nil,  men,  women  and  children,  some  80,000, 
to  hear  speeches  on  political  subjects,  to  discuss  and  adopt 
a  plan  for  Parliamentary  reform,  and  to  choose  a  **legisla- 
torial  representative."  The  leaders  of  the  affair  pub- 
licly admonished  the  meeting  that  no  insult  to  anyone 
was  to  be  permitted,  and  that  no  excuse  whatever  was 
to  be  given  to  the  authorities  for  any  attempted  disturb- 
ance of  the  proceedings.  But  the  local  magistrates  who 
had  announced  such  a  gathering  to  be  illegal  determined 
to  disperse  it.  They  had  sworn  in  special  constables  and 
called  into  service  several  companies  of  infantry  and  six 
troops  of  cavalrymen.  Just  as  Mr.  Hunt,  the  orator 
of  the  occasion,  was  on  the  point  of  formally  opening  the 
proceedings  the  chief  constable  supported  by  some  sol- 
diers pressed  into  the  densely  packed  crowd  seeking  to 
wedge  his  way  through  to  the  speaker's  platform,  to 
serve  on  Mr.  Hunt  the  warrant  of  arrest.  But  so  closely 
jammed  together  were  the  people,  the  constable's  little 
party  could  make  poor  headway,  and  soon  became  entirely 
surrounded,  held  fast  by  the  crowd.  They  were  not 
attacked  nor  were  they  in  any  danger,  but  some  of  the 
magistrates  outside  thought  so,   and  losing  their  heads 


ga^ 


,u 


order  to  the  officer  in  commanvi  of  the  I  lussars 


to  disperse  the  crowd.  At  once  the  cavalry  charged  into 
the  defenceless  multitude  with  the  result  that  five  persons 
were  killed  outright;  thirty  more  with  serious  wounds 
had  to  be  carried  to  the  hospitals,  and  another  half  hun- 


48 


n  iihinu 


Progress 


dred  were  badly  injured.    This  massacre  of  innocent  peo- 
pie  «.i^  generally  deplored  all  over  the  country;  but, 

stnmuc  t  .  -u,  the  central  authorities  endorsed  the  course 
of  x\Z  nil-  ^'  .!-,  and  iruiiucd  the  Prince  ftesrent  to 
xvritt  ilKin  a  !.  ■■  a  of  approval  The  chief  lesson  drawn 
by  the  HiiniMry  fiaaii  tlic  lamentable  occurrence  was  the 
necessity  r.l  ^tren-tlicninp  the  law.  for  svtppression  of 
ce.iJtiM",  Thcv  called  an  autumnal  session  of  I'ariiament, 
an.Uot  .'.  t„  pass  hv  bu.  ...^...t:  .  the  repressive  "bix 
\,  i-s"  .neniinned  above.  1  ncse  enactments  nsarK  the  cul- 
,„in.ti,.,i  and  end  of  an  era  of  harsh  repressive  legisla- 
tion     I  ..r  tr.  c  vears,  1815-1820,  the  lower  classes  had 

suttereci  mi.clK  uvi  in  their  mi.erv  had  caused  the  Gov- 
cmnHiit  no  little  trouble.  In  retahation  the  Govern- 
nun:  had  a  number  ul  tlie  leaders  of  the  populace  eNc- 
cute  i  t  r  hijh  treason;  it  suspended  the  Habeas  t  ..rpus 
Act  allowing  arbitrary  arrest  and  imprisonment  of  sus- 
nected  revolutionists;  it  forbade  the  possession  o!  ine- 
L,„s-  ,t  jealously  guarded  against  the  least  extension 
of  the  suffrage;  it  shackled  the  press;  it  limited  the  nght 
of  public  assembly.  These  reactionary  and  repressive 
methods  kept  the  country  quieted  for  several  yea,.,  but 
the  peace  was  one  of  submission,  not  of  satisfaction. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Tl-  rv:  Law  and  Opinion  in  England,  p.  62. 

2.  Dicey:  p.  106. 

4.  ?Val^ir;  History  of  England  Since  1815,  Vol.  i,  p.  434- 

S  Hunt  and  Poole:  Vol.  n,  p.  I7l- 

6.  Bright:  Vol.   1689-1837,  P-   1354- 

7.  WalpoV-  Vol.  I,  p.  366. 

8.  Walpoi      \    '    I,  p.  442. 


CHAPTER  IV 


STRENGTHl MXn   LIBERALISM   AXD   PAR- 
LIAMENT  REFORM,   1821-1832 

From  182 1  on  the  government's  policy  is  less  restric- 
tive and  illiberal.  Better  fi arvests,  cheaper  bread,  regu- 
lar employment,  and  the  improved  state  of  the  manu- 
facturing interests  made  a  more  contented  people.  There 
wns  less  popular  disturbance  and  therefore  less  necessity 
for  repressive  laws.  The  French  Revolution  was  reced- 
iriLT  farther  in  to  tic  past,  and  there  was  less  of  Jacobin 
drcaJ  amonc^  the  authorities.  The  Peterloo  massacre 
eventually  resulted  in  greater  liberty  for  the  people.  In 
the  trial  of  Hunt  and  some  of  his  associates,  who  were 
arrested  for  their  part  iii  u  i  i'cterloo  meeting,  the  at- 
tempt was  made  to  prove  them  guilty  of  treason,  which 
seemed  possible  according  to  the  law  as  interpreted  by 
Lord  Eldon,  the  Chancellor.  He  held  that  the  charge  of 
treason  could  be  maintained  in  that  **numbers  constituted 
force,  and  force  terror,  and  terror  illegality."  But  the 
judges  who  tried  Hunt  and  his  associates  the  year  after 
then-  offenses  were  committed  took  a  different  view  The 
me  II  were  convicted  of  misdemeanors  only,  though  Hunt 
hiiiiitii  was  imprisoned  for  two  years.  The  court's  view 
made  it  certain  that  unless  there  is  a  special  provision  or 
law  to  the  contrary,  public  political  meetings  are  legal, 
however  great  the  numbers  of  peaceful  men  who  assem- 
ble.^ The  vear  1821  marks  the  death  or  resignation  of 
some  of  the  older  Tories,  like  Lord  Sidmouth  and  Castle- 

49 


50 


England^s  Progress 


rcagh,  'md  the  rise  to  power  of  younger  men  of  the  Tory 
party  suc!i  as  Canning,  Iluskisson  and  Sir  Robert  Peel 
who  were  less  averse  to  innovations  than  their  predeces- 
sors in  otlicc.  I  nder  their  l^n-erxhip,  slight  domestic 
rci-nn-  i\.;!-e  achieved  and  a  r^;,r„:i]  clumgc  made  in 
1  !V  n  I  i  s  foreign  policy.  Huski  n,  a  belles  tr  in  free 
trade,  uas  successful  in  !ia\anq:  some  of  the  restrictive 
navigatiofi  1  i  \  s  rciia  \cvi  in  iSzj,  and  in  reducing  the 
import  duties  in  1824  on  raw  materials  for  manufacture, 
such  as  vvuui  and  silk,  to  the  benefit  of  both  commerce 
and  the  textile  interests.  Peel  began  the  reform  of  the 
criminal  code  by  cutting  down  the  long  list  of  crimes 
punishable  by  death,  reducing  the  list  eventually  to  two 
ottciises.  laz^,  muriJer  and  treasDn,  I  Ic  reformed  the 
lie  system  of  London,  did  good  service  in  18 19  in 
It  t  r  M  ;  the  currency,  and  drew  up  the  bills  that  com- 
v^:\\i:.\  ti  V  Rank  after  1823  to  pay  on  demand  all  notes 
m  kgil  coin.  Canning  led  England  a  step  forward  in 
lid    f  ncign  policy. 

I  r  sc^Tn  years,  1815-1822,  the  members  of  the  Holy 
AHiancc  the  Czar  of  Russia,  Emperor  of  Austria,  and 
King  o 
erntes  * 

I  iirope   11   till    interest  of  absolutism.     Whenever  the 

:im'  state  would  force  a  constitution  from 
r  ilepose  him,  this  confederacy  would  hold 
decide  on  military  intervention  in  the  state, 
end  Lit  a>  their  agent  troops  to  suppress  the  popular 
uinisniL!.  They  had  supported  Austria  in  suppressing 
such.  I  II  vement  in  Naples,  and  backed  France  in  a  like 
iiiterkic  ur    in    Spain.      1  reagh   had   acquiesced    in 

tiicsc  att^  ui  the;  Holy  .\ii>.;i,ea,  but  Canninpf  as  Foreign 
Secretary  announced  a  new  policy.     TTe  threw  his  influ- 


I  > 


Liberal 


}  I 


s 


a  with  their  reactionary  Bourbon  confed- 
ance  and  Spain  and  Naples  were  dominating 


thiar    kin^ 


and  s 


i 


Strengthening  Liberalism 


51 


cncc  against  the  Alliance.  He  withstood  French  inter- 
vention in  Portugal;  he  supported  the  independence  of 
the  revolted  Spanish  colonies  in  America;  and  he  did 
all  he  could  to  prevent  Turkey  from  crushing  Greece. 

ill  /ipril,  1827,  Canning  reached  the  Premiership,  only 
to  occupy  that  high  office  for  a  few  months.  In  attending 
the  burial  of  th.  Duke  of  York  which  occurred  on  a  bleak, 
cold  day  in  the  preceding  January,  he  contracted  an  ill- 
ness that  proved  fatal.  iHe  died  on  the  eighth  of  the 
following  August,  ll's  successor  in  office  was  Lord 
Goderich,  whose  inefficient  ministry  lasted  seven  months 
only.  In  January  25,  1828,  the  Duke  of  Wellington  was 
made  Prime  Minister,  who  held  office  until  Nov.  22, 
1830.  As  head  of  the  Government  the  Iron  Duke  pur- 
sued a  very  unusual  course.  Instead  of  resigning  his 
office  when  defeated  on  an  important  measure  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  he  would  change  his  opinions  to 
suit  the  House,  remain  in  office,  and  graciously  yield  the 
enactment  of  the  bill  desired  by  the  Opposition.  He 
made  his  first  retreat  in  connection  with  the  repeal  of  the 
Test  and  Corporation  Acts.  These  acts  required  pro- 
fession of  conformity  to  the  Church  of  England  for  all 
members  of  corporations  and  holders  of  offices  under  the 
Crown.  Wellington  did  not  favor  their  abolition;  but 
when  he  saw  that  a  motion  of  the  Whigs  for  a  committee 
to  consider  the  Acts  commanded  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons a  majority  of  forty-four  votes,  he  and  Peel,  the 
Home  Secretary,  with  other  leaders  of  the  Government, 
accepted  this  vote  as  practically  decisive;  and  having 
declared  themselves  satisfied  to  substitute  for  the  sacra- 
mental test  in  the  laws,  the  requirement  that  a  man  when 
inducted  into  office  must  affirm  that  he  would  do  nothing 
to  injure  the  Church,  supported  the  passage  of  the  bill.^ 


52 


England's  Progress 


The  repeal  was     igorously  contested  in  the   I  i   use  of 

^^^^-^  n  ifii  gr  Hind  that  the  acts  formed  an  important 
*Mt  ftnsive  outwork  of  the  union  of  Church  and  State/' 
^nd  flu  bill  was  not  passed  until  its  affirmation  require- 
nurit  was  altered  by  adding  the  phrase  **upon  the  true 
laith  of  I  (  iiristian;'  which  clause  continued  the  exclu- 
sion of  Jews  from  holding  office. 

f  he  i  r.inc  Minister's  next  retreat  was  in  connection 

^  Hiiolic  Emancipation.     Since  1800 
lired  the   \ii  of  Union  of  Great  Britain 
'^^*i  •   '  -  Catholics  of  Ireland  had  been  agitating 

for  full  I  (  litical  equahty  with  Protestants,  which  Pitt 
would  h:i\e  liliefi  them  at  first  had  it  not  been  for  the 
obstinate  refusal  oi  the  Kirii^,  George  III.  \xd  by  Daniel 
O'Conncll  tliey  organizcil  in  1823  the  Catholic  \-^M)cia- 
tioii  wh;  I!  snein  had  enrolled  in  its  membership  nearly 
all  tlie  Catholics  of  the  country.  The  Association  got 
up  imnunse  mass-meetings,  and  impressive  demonstra- 
^i«  n^  *  e\er\  Nft;  sent  orators  over  Ireland  advocat- 
iria  the  lathoHc  cause;  organized  parochial  clubs;  drilled 
^^H  1  iO|ue  \n  processional  marching  and  united  the  senti- 
111  en t  and  strength  of  the  nation  against  the  illiberal 
policy  of  the  English  government.  The  Association  col- 
lected froiii  its  members  an  impost,  called  the  ''Catholic 
Rent,"  and  In  182^:  showed  its  political  power  by  electing 
with  an  overwhelming  majority  O'Connell  as  their  repre- 
sent itive  for  the  countv  of  Clare.  The  sole  barrier  that 
weuhl  exclude  O'Connell  from  Parliament  was  the  oath 
iie  would  have  to  take  on  entrance,  since  the  election  was 
altogether  leu:al.  The  Association,  under  O'Connell's 
leatling,  at  uncc  planned  the  election  of  Catholic  repre- 
sent at  for  all  the  counties  of  Ireland,  and  began  pledg- 
ing  itb   members   to   resist   Wellington's  ministry  until 


i^trengthemn(]  IJhei 


7' 


lit'  Jfl 


S3 


Cztholk  emancipation  was  granted,  and  to  fight  also  for 

kerT'rl  ^r        '"'  '"'^  ^°"'  ^""  ^^"^°"^  ^"d  evil 
liberty.     The  Association  planned  to  influence  the  cov- 

ernment  by  the   use  of  moral  means  only;  but  still  it 
seemed  to  have  within  it  the  possibility  of  mustering  on 
Jts  side  If  need  be  the  physical  strength  of  the  whole 
Catholic  population  of  Ireland.     Among  its  supporters 
too  were  numbered  the  Catholics  of  Scotland  auu  !     . 
land    many  of  the  Whigs,  and  some  of  the  Tory  party 
Until  1829  Wellington,  an  Anglo-Irish  Protestant  by 
birth,  had  refused  to  give  any  consideration  whatever  to 
proposals  for  Catholic  emancipation,  showing  himself  to 
be  ,n  the  matter  as  unbending  an  opponent  as  Liverpool 
or  tldon  had  ever  been.     But  in  that  year  Wellington 
and  Pee    came  to  the  conclusion  that  civil  war  would 
occur  111  Ireland  unless  concessions  were  made.    The  min- 
istry announced  therefore  their  intention  to  bring  in  a 
bill  that  would  place  Catholics  on  the  plane  of  political 
equality  with  the  members  of  the  Church  of  England. 
The  Relief  Bill  introduced  experienced  considerable  re- 
sistance in  passage.     King  George  IV  detested  the  con- 
cession; the  bishops  and  many  lay  peers  were  obstinate- 
and  a  large  proportion  of  the  English  population  disliked 
the  proposition.    But  with  the  aid  of  the  Whigs  the  min- 
istry  succeeded  in  its  enactment.     It  established  real  po- 
htical  equality  between  Catholics  and  Protestants     The 
Catholics  of  Great  Britain  were  given   the   franchise; 
Catholics    of   Great    Britain    and    Ireland   were    given 
entrance    to    Parliament;    and    Roman    Catholics    were 
admitted  to  all  municipal  offices,  to  all  judicial  offices 
except  in   t!ic   ecclesiastical  courts,   and   to   aii  polit-ra' 
offices  except  the  offices  of  Regent,  of  Lord  Lieutenant 
of  Ireland,   and  of  Lord  Chancellor  in  England  and 


'4 


England's  Progress 


Irclarhl"^ 
Bil 


: ;  \       r  T 


them,  were 


t  Hi 


X  t  long  after  the  passage  of  the  Relief 
1     fifty  Irish  Catholics,  O'Connell  among 

i^Liiiig  seats  in  Parliament. 

ttu    vear  foliowmg  that   of  the  passage  of 
belief   !>JH     i'arliament  was  dissolved,   and   a  new 
il    elect     II   held   on   account   of  the   death   of   the 
sovereign  George  IV.     The  ''Sailor  King''  William  IV, 
the  only  surviving  brother  of  the  former  ruler,  succeeded 
to   the   throne       lie   made   a   good  constitutional  king, 
for  he  hc!ie\  1  il  the  day  was  past  when  a  ruler  could  "make 
iiiniseU  an  eitective  barrier  against  the  movement  of  the 
tones     '     The  reformers  took  heart  and  in  the  general 
ika     n  that  followed  won  from  the  old  Tory  party  more 
th    1  en     M     N      In  the  English  counties,  where  elections 
uut   if.;   t    an  in  the  boroughs,  sixty  out  of  eighty-two 
mcroihers  were  returned  by  the  Whigs.     The  election  in- 
dicated that  the  nation  expected  Parliamentary  reform  to 
ht    unhertaken.    luit    when   the   subject   was  brought   up, 
\\h  ihniiton   boldly  and  bluntly  declared  that  England's 
legislative   system   was   well  nigh   perfect,   that   he   had 
no  plan  to  offer  for  reform,  and  that  "as  long  as  he  held 
aro.   Matiun  in  the  government  of  the  country  he  should 
alw  ays  feel  it  his  duty  to  resist  such  measures  when  pro- 
posed by  others."  ^     This  frank  statement  of  his  con- 
viction in  the  matter  was  accepted  by  the  Whigs  and  re- 
formers as  a  challenge,  and  on  the  next  test  vote  the 
minis*    .  ^ated  by  a  majority  of  29.     Wellington 

now  ind  the  king  appointed  Charles  Earl  Grey, 

the  \V  I  :  h-der,  i'rime  Minister. 

The  se  of  reform  was  strengthened  at  this  time  in 
]  jj^  |j  hv  the  spread  of  democratic  movements' that 
year,  iHv^  in  several  foreign  countries;  especially  by 
the  revoiut     1  h    France  that  substituted  the  Bourbon 


Strengthening  Liberalism  ^^ 

cS?;^?f ''  1  for  the  citizen  kU.,,  Louis  Philippe. 
CWl  s  had  hec^  dethroned  by  th  ..pie  because^ 
S^  \nJ  .  f  ^^^^^  ^>^  ;h-"^h  an  .ura  royalist  n.o. 
istry,  mstead  of  constitutionally  through  a  fairly  el     n  I 

Z  pS^tVft"'  ^"'  '-''^'^  ^  ^'^  -"^^  with 
the  people  he  had  the  impertinence  and  temerity  to  issue 

three   intolerable   ordinances;   the   first,   suspending  the 
freedom  of  the  periodical  press :  the  second,  orderhfg  th 
mlt    r   /'^  Chamber  of  Deputies;  a'nd  the  third 
making  alterations  suiting  the  kin,  in  the  constitution 
of  the  next  chamber  to  be  elected.     Instead  of  obeying 
the  royal  orders  the  populace  revolted,  and  securin/the 
support  of  the  disaffected  national  troops,  forced  the  ab 
dicat  f   He  king.    The  effects  of  the'paris  revSution 

were  felt  at  once  all  over  Europe.  There  followed  popu- 
lar uprisings  m  Italy,  Germany,  Spain  and  Portu^l. 
The  Belgians  revolted  against  union  with  Holland,  Ind 

NiZl  ,^^TV^".  ^''P^''^  ^"'^  ^f  '^'  R^^^i^n  Czar 
iMchoas  I.  In  England  it  strongly  influenced  the  gen- 
eral  election  of  that  year. 

The  English  reform  movement  had  gained  by  this  time 
the  support  of  many  men  of  substance,  influence  and  edu- 
cation.    Twelve  years  before  the  loudest  and  most  active 
agitation   was   among  the   lower   classes,    day  laborers 
and  artisans;  but  the  strength  and  direction  of  the  move- 
ment  came  now  from  higher  social  groups,  the  manufac 
turers,  merchants,  lawyers,  school  teachers,  thrifty  farm! 
ers,  and  the  householders  of  independent  means.     Lead- 
ing statesmen  had  begun  to  accept  the  teachings  of  the 
political  philosopher,  Jeremy  Bentham,  who  had  published 
his  sound  views  on  the  nature  of  government  as  early  as 

]^^^^u       t  '^^^'^'•^^  ^'  ^^^^^ct  fundamental  principles: 
(i;      I  hat  the  end  of  all  government  is  utility,  or  the 


England's  Process 


f) 


oi    ah!, a 


Cr. 


<ood  of  the  governed":  (2)  that  the  greatest  happiness 

the  greatest  number  is    the  foundation  of  morals  and 

legislation  ' :  and  (3)  that  **evcr     p  rson  is  in  the  main 

and  as  a  i^cncrui  rule,  the  best  ,uJg.  rd  his  own  happi- 
ness/' ''  I  (i  ackn  v^  !  re  these  principles  was  to  confess 
that  the  l^rittsh  (.^ -^-a  ■  r,:/'"--;  was  very  defective.  Ben- 
tham\  JiscIpKs  wire  n  ous  and  influential  in  1830, 

anti  heartijv  supporteil  tlie  reform  program. 

The  svstern  e  t  Parliamentary  representation  was  full 
c  I  iaii  of  the  members  of  the  House  of 
*  incd  their  seats  by  purchase  or  by  the 
^  the  proprietor  of  some  great  estate. 
5eats  in  the  House  of  Commons  were  bought  and  sold 
operilye  prias  ranging  from  3,000  to  30,000  pounds 
and  the  kinir  i  chief  purchaser.  The  borough  Woebly 
biU  nu  J  Marquis  of  Bath,  who  just  before  an 

ch    t  o  1  wenili  send  down  his  servants  to  occupy  for  a 
:hv  rieketv  nhl   houses  there,  that  thev  might 
md  return  his  nominees  on  election  day. 
:        and  could  return  six  members,  Lord 
Lonsdale   :  •^•'     ^'  '"   ^f  N^nrfolk  eleven.     A 

count  of  inhabitants  hke  Yorkshire  or 

1  in  ;,J;  au  more  representatives  than  the  most 

spu  county.     The  county  of  Cornwall  had 

1    rt  nbers  lavished  upon  it,  but  the  newly-grown 

pope  us  niJustrial  centres,  like  Leeds,  Birmingham,  and 
Manehcstcr,  each  with  a  population  numbering  from  86,- 
n  -  133,000,  and  over  a  score  of  other  towns  with 
P  ;  :is  i-unning  from  ten  to  twenty  thousand  had 
j;  ,  r  pr.s.  rt  i  ;v  e  at  all.  There  were  still  representatives 
^.  to  decayed  villages  that  were  formerly  in 

i;     ;  I  ,   important   seaports   or   market  towns, 

bur  trei;  .  .  I  \^sO  had  neither  houses  nor  inhabitants.    The 


\,\ 


\ ,  .i  I 


J    'll       i   '.J 


Strengthening  Liberalism  jy 

electoral  power  of  a  man  varied  most  capriciously  Re- 
siding  ,n  one  place  he  might  be  one  oi  twenfv  electors 
sendmg  a  delegate  to  the  House  of  Commons ;  residing 
m  another  he  might  be  one  of  a  hundred  or  a  thousand 
voters.  About  one  out  of  every  forty-eight  persons  had 
a  vote.  Ihese  indefensible  anomalies  in  the  representa- 
tive  system  were  due  to  the  fact  that  the  constitution  of 
the  I  I  )use  of  Commons  had  experienced  httle  change  for 
over  two  hundred  years. 

Since  the  calling  of  the  ^'Model  Pariiament"  by  Ed- 
ward  I  m  1295,  the  rule  had  been,  with  but  a  few  ex- 
ceptions,  that  each  county  and  each  borough  should  have 
two  representatives  in  the  elected  national  legislative  as- 
sembly      The   small   and   sparsely  settled   counties   and 
boroughs  of  Wales  secured  only  one  member  each  •  T  on- 
don  got  four.     Since  Edward's  day  a  few  insignihcant 
boroughs  had  lost  the  right  of  returning  a  representative 
but  numerous  other  places,  many  of  them  unimportant 
villages,  had  been  created  boroughs  and  given  representa- 
tives  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  order  to  increase  the 
influence  of  the  Crown  in  national  legislation.     One  hun- 
dred and  eighty  borough  members  were  added  to  the 
Commons  between  the  coming  to  the  throne  of  Henry 
VIII  in  1509  and  the  death  of  Charles  II  in  1685.     A 
town  when  first  receiving  representation  in  Parliament 
may  have  been  a  place  of  considerable  size  and  impor- 
tance, but  though  in  succeeding  years  it  dwindled  in  popu- 
lation until  it  lacked  a  dozen  inhabitants,  yet  it  continued 
to  possess  its  two  members  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
A  village  settlement  of  little  importance  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  might  become  in  the  eighteenth  century  a  vast 
city,  and  still  be  unrepresented.     There  was  an  undue 
and  unfair  excess  of  borough  over  county  members  in 


58 


England^s  Progress 


Parliament.     The  qualifications  for  voting,  which  had 
remained   practically  unaltered  for   generations,   needed 

tfiorougiu^oing  revision.  The  county  Parliamentary 
train  hhc  was  confined  to  free-holders  of  land  worth 
hjftv  s!ii}linii;s  a  vear.  but  as  during  the  eighteenth 
century  nianv  small  e>r  iie^  had  been  swallowed  up 
ih  the  1  ir^c  estates,  there  were  only  a  few  such  free- 
holders, iPiCii  owning  outripfht  pieces  of  land.  The  pros- 
perous copy-holders,  the  industrious  tenant-farmers  and 
lease-holders  who  cultivated  nine-tenths  of  the  land,  and 
the  great  Inuiy  ui  hired  laborers  tilling  the  soil  had 
no  \  Otis  .\s  to  the  borough  franchise,  it  exhibited  ex- 
traordinary variety  from  town  to  town,  having  been  deter- 
mined by  the  history  and  character  of  the  settlement.  In 
some  nl  the  boroughs  every  resident  freeman  or  every 
householder  had  a  vote;  in  (triers  only  the  town  council- 
lors who  represented  a  close  corporation  filling  their  own 
\  icaiieicH  }i  id  \otes:  and  between  these  extremes  there 
txisitd  c\cry  conceivable  intermediate  system.  Some 
fiithJihi ate  iis  o5  the  franchise  had  occurred  since  the 
aeecsMcM)  ot   tfie   i  u^urs  but  in  the  direction  of  restrict- 

2,  the  suffrage,  qualifications  for  voting 
OS       el  under  George  III   (i  760-1 820)    than 
-d/hvaaej   III.   (1327-1377). 
'W  liere  tin    suffrage  was  confined  to  bur|j:age  holds, 
the  re   I  r  roperty  of  the  place  was  acquired  by  wealthy 
iniivi    uai^  who  conferred  on  friends,  relations,  or  de- 
pciidctus,  the  riglit  of  property  during  the  period  of  elec- 
tion     It   Idle  corporation  had  the  right  of  election,  the 


1  n  I T      f  1  i'  i  t 


uriOi 


1 1  \  i 
Hiriiience  of  the  neighboring  landed  proprietor  was  often 


fl, 


sufficient  to  seeur 


that  its  memberb,  whose  trade  perhaps 

deperuled  on   his  i^rHid-wall  should  yield  him  practically 


1 1 


ic    p.itruiKij^c    u 


i    the  borough.     Where   the   freeman 


Strengthening  Liberalism  59 

shared  in  the  vote,  the  freedom  of  a  borough  was  seldom 
conterred  on  any  individual  on  whose  support  the  influ- 
ential landowner  could  not  depend,  and  if  any  ventured 
upon  a  course  of  independence,  the  pliant  majority  were 
ready  to  create  new  freemen  for  the  express  purpose  of 
turnmg  the  election.     In  the  open  boroughs  money  was 
expended  m  every  kind   of  bribery."  »     The  rights  of 
persons  unfavorable  to  the  man  of  influence  wer-    >ic- 
feated  sometimes  by  omitting  to  rate  them  to  pay  the 
parish  taxes     At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  there 
were  m  Parliament  as  many  as  90  members  of  the  House 
of  Commons  returned  from  46  boroughs  with  not  more 
than  so  voters;  there  were  81  members  practically  named 
by  40  peers;  there  were  150  members  nominated  by  mem- 
bers  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  as  many  as  350  were  re- 
turned  through  the  influence  and  control  of  as  few  as  180 
individuals. 

Such  were  some  of  the  injustices  that  Lord  Grey's  min- 
istry  sought  to  remove  in  their  famous  Reform  Bill  of 
March  I,  1 83 1.    Its  introduction  into  the  House  of  Com- 
mons was  entrusted  to  Lord  John  Russell,  a  noble  scion 
of  a  prominent  U  hig  family,  and  a  leader  long  identified 
with  the  movement  for  Parliamentary  reform.    The  biU 
was  thoroughgoing,  the  ministers  being  convinced  that 
nothing  less  than  a  great  measure  would  satisfy  the  na- 
tion.   It  proposed  to  abolish  three  chief  evils :  ( i )  nomi- 
nation of  members  by  patrons;  (2)  election  of  members 
by  the  oligarchic  town  councils  or  close  corporations; 
(3)    the    costliness    and    corruption    of   elections."      It 
planned  a  redistribution  of  the  seats  on  a  fairer  basis, 
taking  representation  away  from  the  decayed  villages  and 
bestowing  it  on  the  hitherto  unrepresented,  newly  grown 
prosperous  towns ;  and  it  sought  to  simplify  the  voting 


6o 


r. 


Progress 


system,  to  establish  a  uniform  borough  franchise,  and  to 
make  the  t  ranchise  for  both  county  and  borough  similar 

in  i'nncii)le.  It  was  not  a  democratic  measure  bv  -inv 
Ill  Ills,  but  it  proposed  an  important  extension  of  the  suf- 
frike.  possibly  enlarging  the  electorate  by  about  one 
lialf  a  million  \'oters. 

ho  far-reaching  was  the  measure  in  its  proposals  that 
it  excited  at  once  the  enthusiastic  support  of  all  friends 
and  till  biitcrtht  !  ppcssmon  of  all  enemies  of  reform. 
The  passage  of  tlu  !a!}  was  hotly  contested  at  every  step. 
The  I  ropjse  1  reiuiiii  was  described  as  a  ^'revolution 
that  w  H  (net  turn  all  the  natural  influence  of  rank  and 
pre  pert V  ft  was  denied  that  representation  in  origin 
w  IS  wonnc  tel  \n  its  determination  with  the  number  of 
the  population  or  with  taxation;  it  was  claimed  that  the 
rotten  boroughs  and  close  boroughs,  whose  members 
coulJ  !h  nominated  by  patrons  were  serviceable  in  bring- 
mil  voarm  talent  int  I  rliament,  or  good  as  refugees 
for  ti  N  ru  a  fu  J  n  embers  who  had  lost  support  in  their 
.  V  rtt  nancies;  it  was  affirmed  that  the  proposal  to 
ab  i  !  many  seats  was  nothing  less  than  robbery,  *'a 
new  Fn  ie^s  piir^e.''  It  was  declared  that  England's 
ftiriii  of  ^o\erainient,  as  it  then  stood,  was  a  model  of 
perfection,  and  that  the  experience  of  all  history  had  not 
produced  a  better  one. 

So  mnru  r  us  were  the  representatives  of  the  rotten 
boroughs,  and  so  resolved  were  they  in  withstanding 
their  own  destruction,  that  the  ministry  found  they  could 
not  carry  their  measure  without  an  appeal  to  the  country 
through  a  new  election.  In  a  full  house  the  Bill  on  its 
second  readini^  passed  by  onlv  one  vote,  302  to  301, 
whicli  aornanced  Lwrd  Grev  tltat  he  could  not  carry  the 
reform   trr   upii  with  so  small  a  majority.     He  offered 


Stren§$hemng  Liberalism 


61 


IV,  would  not  accept 

and  to  give  the  na- 

;ew  elections  were 

popular  agita- 

ia   vhich  the  min- 

;        The  Bill  was 

iraa  tii  the  same  month 

e  Commons,  hnally 

ig  in  argument 


t  e  0  i  i  i 


;  If 


i~X,  1 1  k. 


*        "  1 

w\  w  f 


to  resign,  but  the  Kinpf.  Will' am 

it,  preferriniT  to  dissolve  Farlao 

tion  a  chance  to  speak  it     r  a  d 

conducted  in   the  midst  of   urn 

tion,  and  resulted  in  retu  ana  =  I 

isters  could  command  a      am    t^ 

again  introduced  September,  1831, 

went  through  all  three  readings  b 

passing  with  a  majority  of  106. 

the  opposition  had  resorted  to  ob5Uuaive  tactics,  repeat- 

ing  over  and  over  the  same  speeches,  and  making  dilatory 

motions.    ''In  fourteen  days  Peel  had  spoken  48,  Crocker 

57  and  Wetherell   58  times."  ^^      fo  the  Upper  lb  use. 

the  Lords,  tenucious  of  their  pri\ak^f^es.  re]e.:tr. l 

and  their  action  brought  the  country  to  the  verge 
war.      The   newspapers   were   filled   with    ir  .  ^, 
monstrances;  there  was   talk  of  undertnk'-       • 
hereditary  titles  and  ending  the  ITc    sa         i 
the  lower  classes  riots  broke  out  necessitatim   r 
out  of  troops;  enormous  mass-meetings  attef^v  i 
of  thousands  were  being  held  ail  over  th 
from  these  and  hundreds  of  political  orga: 
up  the  cry  'The  Bill,  the  whole  Bill,  and  nothiii 
Billd'  Parliament  was  now  prorogued,  but  whei 
sembled  in  December  Lord  John  Russell  introdu 
December  12,  1832,  his  third  Reform  Bill, 
the  Lower  i louse  March  23,  1832,  by  a  ma- 
in the  Upper  IT    ;;e,   tlu    T     -ds  this  t' 
rejecting  the  mea       a  planned  to  pass  it  bu 
mutilations.     \\  at acupon  Lord  Grey  once  mo;  ^ 
knowing  well,  however,  that  no  Tory  minist; 
could  appoint  would  be  able  to  conduct  the 
as  affairs  then  stood.     But  William  TV     ^ 


abobsn 


among 


L^ 


(  > 


l^ 


62 


Ent^land^s  Progress 


resignation  and  led  the  Duke  of  WiHington  to  try  for 
a  week,  but  in  vain,  to  form  a  caliimr  Wellington  and 
his  collea^ies  in  the  Tory  party  feared  civil  war  and 
rigiitlv  Wmviid  thai  Uie  troops  could  not  be  depended 
on  to  face  the  angr\'  people.  The  Duke  advised  the  King 
to  call  back  Lord  Grey,  which  was  done.  But  Grey,  be- 
fore ill  would  accept  office  again,  secured  from  His  Ma- 
jesty this  written  promise: 

*The  King  grants  permission  to  Earl  Grey  and  to  his 
Chancelhir,  1  oial  Brougham,  to  create  such  a  number  of 
peers  as  will  be  sufficient  to  insure  the  passing  of  the  Re- 
form Bill."  ^^  This  threat  ended  all  resistance  in  the 
II()u^c  ui  I  rJb.  The  new  peers  were  not  created,  but 
the  ! Hi  Ih  irne  law  June  4,  1832,  Wellington  and  about 
n  !  h  1  !  who  opposed  the  bill  purposely  absent- 
isch  es  at  its  passage. 

\ct  as  finally  passed  wholly  disfranchised 
a\M  J-  less  than  2000  inhabitants,  and  took 
-  icsentative  from  each  of  32  boroughs 
h  iti  4000  inhabitants.  The  seats  thus  ob- 
redistributed,  of  which  44  went  to  huge 
t  owrih  t  I  districts  of  London,  each  place  receiving  two 
members;  2T  to  towns  of  less  consequence,  each  place 
receiving  one  member;  65  were  added  to  the  counties; 
8  were  ^vcn  to  Scotland  and  5  to  Ireland.  The  total 
membcrshi{)  oi  ihi  I  louse  remained  as  before  658. 

As  to  suHrage,  the  act  established  a  uniform  borough 
franchise,  the  right  to  vote  being  given  to  all  10  pound 


1  n 


I  J,  i  ■ 


■'-in 


awav 


h  '1  \  !  r  1  o' 


.  4..1 


I  i.'.  s  s 


houschoUlcrs,    tlia 


to   those   *Vho   own   or  rent   any 


fiiaise.  shop  or  building  of  an  annual  n  '  with  the  land 
of  10  pounds.'*  In  the  counties  votes  were  given  to  copy- 
h  (Iderh  iihl  lease-holders,  that  is  "to  farmers  and  tenants 
of  land  whose  tenure  was  for  sixty  years,  and  of  the  an- 


Strengthening  Liberalism 


63 


nual  value  of  ten  pounds,  and  to  tenants-at-will  holding 
land  worth  fifty  pounds  a  year.'*  12  Formerly  only  those 
who  owned  land  outright  had  the  franchise.  The  Act 
enfranchised  the  middle  class,  but  not  the  artisans  of 
towns  nor  laborers  of  the  counties.  The  passage  of  the 
Reform  Bill  diminished  the  power  of  the  landed  interests 
m  government,  and  it  established  two  important  consti- 
tutional principles:  (i)  The  House  of  Lords  cannot  re- 
sist the  House  of  Commons,  when  the  latter  truly  voices 
the  will  of  the  nation;  (2)  The  Sovereign  of  ^  '  nd 
must  yield  to  the  advice  of  his  ministers  on  a  qu.  a 

vital  import  to  the  state. 


I. 
2. 

3. 

4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 
8. 

9. 
10. 

II. 

12. 


REFERENCES 

McCarthy:  Modern  England  before  the  Reform  Bill,  p.  87. 
Bright:  History  of  England,  Vol.  1689-1837,  p.  1401. 
Montague :  Elements  of  Constitutional  History  of  England, 

McCarthy:  Modern  England  before  the  Reform  Bill,  p.  203. 

McCarthy:  Epoch  of  Reform,  p.  44. 

Dicey:  Law  and  Opinion  in  England,  p.  145. 

xMontague:  p.  205. 

Paul:  History  of  Reform,  p.  131. 

McCarthy:  Epoch  of  Reform,  p.  53. 

Hazen:  Europe  Since  181 5,  p.  435. 

Hazen:  Europe  Since  181 5,  p.  436. 

Hazen:  p.  437. 


CHAPTER  V 

PROiiKESSIVF   i  JM,  li^LATlON 

1833-1 

h    Reform  Bill  of  1832  completely  ousted  the  "bor- 
ough mngeriiifr    Inrv   olic^archy''    from    authority    and 

pave  control  of  tfic   irovcrnmcni   into  the  hands  nf  the 
WhicTs    fnr    sc\'crai    decades.       Immediately    preceding 

1 8  30-   the  vc:u-   drcv':.   Whii^  ministry   came  into  office, 

the  Tones  Iku]  cnioved  cii  aliiinst  uiiintemnned  suM-em- 


acv  t i'^r  1  eM't v-^' X  ' 
after    i  H  ^o,    tliev    were. 


/■■■■ST"'*'  B 


\..    ^  1   e     \  '  .  i 


1   power  e  eight   \       s. 

it  to  their  :eJ\eintaire  later  to  change   Uicir 


sara-v    n:one    and    bega 


n 


t  i  \'  e  s 


were    'i\'^U 

social  am! 


themselves   ''Conserva- 
Whigs,  later  d  Liberals,  were  given  a 

Inrid,  ha-r  ;,!"  power  because  tlicv  were  active  promoters 
■  d  ™  'orms.  The  changes  thev  scnt-lit  to  make 
a  constitutional  in  character  but  chiefly 
ccofi  III!  I  hey  differed  from  the  Radicals  in 
that  thcv  haci  no  intrrition  or  desire  to  experiment  with 
democratic  proiects.  Favorable  to  the  Whigs  also  was 
the  accession  of  \dctoria  to  the  iliroae  at  the  death  of 
her  iinch:  WilHani  IV,  June  30,  1837.  Tfip  vn-^n-  ruler 
had  been  well  instructed  by  her  teacher  a:  i  -iCc.  iNcr  i  ^■-d 
Melbourne  m  the 
raudoifv.c'fitarv  >•  ^ 
Idle    [:r*^t   ti*  ■ 


Wdoir  doctrines  of  Hi 


/  •    I 


was  the  passage 


'v  and  ministerial   responsiiacry'. 
a  of  the  Reformed   Parhament 
of  an  act  for  the  emancipation  of  the 
64 


Progressive  LegisUiion 


65 


alaves  in  the  British  colonics.    The  ne|rroes    11  nber  rur 
over  750,000,  represented  many  miiiions  oi   poiimis  u? 
property  owned  by  the  most  respectable   and  pohticallv 
influential  famihes  of  I     gland,  and  through  their  hihor 
was  maintained  a  lucrative  market  for  British  goods      In 
1833    one-fiftcenth    pot    of   British   exports  were    pur» 
chased  by  the  West  Indian  Islands:  in  18 14  one-sixth  part 
nearly  had  been  taken  by  them,     bhiven^  had  a  host  of 
defenders,   and  numerous   and  varied  were   their  argu- 
ments in  support  of  the  institution.     They  avowed  that 
the  colonies  with  free  laborers  would  not  comnete  with 
other   places   using  slave-labor;   that   England   had   no 
right  to  rob  certain  of  her  colonies  of  an  institution  which 
formed  the  very  basis  of  their  strength   and  welfare; 
that  to  abolish  slaver^^  in  colonies  in  direct  contradiction 
to  their  desire  as  expressed  in  their  local  assemblies  was 
an  ^  unwarranted    and    unconstitutional    interference    in 
their  government;  that  it  was  unfair  to  the  negroes  wiio 
were  better  off  in  bondage  than  in  freedom,  for  "who," 
It  was  asked,  ''is  to  feed  these  poor  creatures  if  removed 
from  the  protection  of  their  masters?";  that   luirroes 
would  not  render  earnest  labor  except  under  compulsion, 
and  that  if  they  were  freed,  their  places  could  not  be 
taken  by  Europeans  because  they  were  unfit  to  toil  in  the 
swelterinir  heat  oi  tiie  tropical  sugar,  rice  or  cotton-iields ; 
that  er      cipation  would  be  followed  by  insurrections  of 
the  fiegroes;  that  the  government  could  not  justly  thus 
Interfere  with  the  sacred  rights  of  property;  that    the 
negroes    on    the    West    Indian   plantations   were    better 
treated  than  the  young  workers    i  hinglish  factories  and 
mines,  and  that  it  was  right  and  sensible  to  correct  labor 
conditions  at  home  before  attempting  to  do  so  for  islands 
beyond  the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  that  the  reports  of  ill-treat- 


66 


England's  Progress 


ment  of  slaves  circulated  by  the  abolitionists  were  exag- 
gerations, and  that  it  was  to  the  interest  of  slave  owners 
to  care  t  r  their  property,  not  destroy  it,  and  that  it  was 
reasonable  to  believe  that  they  did  so. 

Iliesc  arguments  of  riic  planters  seem  weak  enough  to- 
day, but  it  took  a  fiait  century  of  labor  and  agitation 
on  the  part   of  the  abolitionists  and  humanitarians  to 
o\erthrn\\    the    system   supported  by  them.      Prominent 
among  those  who  espoused  the  cause  of  the  slaves  were 
Ramsey  who  \n    17S4  published  a  book  on  the  cruelties 
of  the  slave  trade  that  excited  wide  interest;  I.ady  Mid- 
dle ton  whose  influence  wns  largely  instrumental  in  hav- 
ing the  subject  brought  to  the  attention  oi   Parliament; 
Williani  Wo!      force,  a  man  of  high  birth,  considerable 
fortune,  philanthropic  nature,  and  earnest  Christian  faith, 
who  from  1787  to  the  end  of  his  life  in  1833,  was  active 
botii  w  thin  and  without  Parliament  in  waging  the  anti- 
sla\-erv  crusade;  (jiaiiiviiie  bharp,  who  ni  1772  obtained 
the  iirst  decision  that  slavery  was  illegal  in  England,  and 
under  whose  presidency  was  formed  in  London  in  1787 
the    "  houetv    for   the   Aoohtion   of   the   Slave   Trade"; 
Ihornas  (  horksoii  who  gained  a  prize  at  Cambridge  for 
an  essav  un  shuery,  published  in  1786,  and  who  was  of 
great  service  in  collecting  valuable  data  for  Wilberforce 
to  u  c  in  tile  f  Iniisc  of  Commons;  Brougham,  who  carried 
an  at  in   i  s  i  i  making  it  a  felony  to  engage  in  the  slave 
trah    wlii  ii  gave  effectiveness  to  the  act  passed  in  1807 
under  Grenville's  administration  tiiat  prohibited  the  slave 
r  a  ie    if  er  Jan    1.  1808,  and  who  in  1830  when  probably 
the  most   p   uerful  member  in  the   !  f  use  of  Commons 
maele  boll  advocacy  of  the  cause  of  aou:  tion  in  a  telhng 
oration  that  placed  emancipation  among  questions  of  first- 
rate  importance  in  practical  politics;  Thomas  Fowell  Bux- 


Progresuve   Leqtslalton 


67 


I 


ton,  member  of  a  Quaker  Family,  a  distinguished  gradu- 
ate of  Dublin  University  and  a  member  of  the  African 
Institution  which  watched  over  the  law  that  abohshed 
the  slave-trade,  a  man  whose  views  in  t  rt  ter  appear 
in  his  tirst  resolution  on  the  subject  a.Lu,  though 

not  passed,  in  Parhament  in  1823,  wiixui  declared  ''that 
the  state  of  slavery  was  repugnant  to  the  principles  of 
the  British  Constitution  and  of  the  Christian  religion, 
and  that  it  ought  to  be  abolished  throughout  the  British 
Colonies,  with  as  much  expedition  as  may  be  found  con- 
sistent  with  due  regard  to  the  well-being  of  the  parties 
concerned";  ^  Zachary  Macaulay,  father  of  the  historian, 
who  resigned  the  management  of  an  estate  in  the  West 
Indies  because  of  his  dislike  of  slavery,  who  had  been  one 
of  the  leaders  in  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  found  the 
Sierra  Leone  Colony,  which  was  intended  to  be  an  asylum 
for  freed  negroes  and  a  trading  centre  for  developing 
the  resources  of  Africa;  and  who  gave  two  years  of  la- 
bor to  the  collection  of  a  body  of  facts  concerning  the 
actual^  working  of  the  slave  system  in  the  colonies,  which 
material  furnished  weapons  for  Buxton's  use  in  Parlia- 
ment; and  Lord  Stanley,  who,  as  the  Colonial  Secretary, 
led  in  carrying,  as  a  ministerial  bill,  the  great  abolition 
measure  of  August,   1833. 

The  Emancipation  Act  abolished  slavery  in  the  Brit- 
ish Empire  by  purchase.  The  law  took  effect  August  i, 
1834.  Children  of  6  years  of  age  and  under  were  im- 
mediately freed;  the  rest,  while  emancipated,  were  yet 
apprenticed  from  5  to  7  years  for  three-fourths  of  their 
time  to  their  former  masters.  The  planters  were  paid 
for  their  losses  the  handsome  sum  of  20,000,000  pounds, 
not  a  few  of  them  being  enriched  by  the  exchange.  The 
apprentice  provision  was  in  time  disregarded. 


68 


England's  /' 


■1  r  f^  ^  q 


r-f"*  f 


Parliament  that  severed  the  bonds  of  the  black 


to  recognize 

it  m  British 


■le 


laborers  t)[  the  West   Indies  cduIiI  !i'')r   fa 
a  duty  awed  to  tlw  wiutc  ij'-'f:;-- 
factories.      A  iter  tin;  iritr^    = 

wea\'ing  anij  spifinini;  nidub......   •'  .    -^.en  were  soon 

crowded  iritn  the  iiiiils,  because  with  machines  to  do  the 
heavier  tasks  of  ni  mufacture  they  could  perform  the 
lighter  e)perat!ons  eqiiallv  as  well  as  adults,  and  yet  would 
ha\-e  to  be  paid  hardly  ooc-teiith  as  much  in  wages.  Lazy 
parents  sent  their  children  into  the  factories  to  get  their 
earnings.  Ifie  h  d  authorities  of  cities  and  towns  who 
had  to  loisk  after  the  offspring  of  tlie  de>titute  and  pauper 
classes  were  eager  to  apprentice  dependent  children  to  the 
rnanut  icturers  for  a  number  of  years  in  order  to  lighten 
the  burden  of  t.\ic  poor  rates,  and  to  remove  the  young 
from  the  degrading  influence  of  pauperized  parents  The 
general  result  was  that  boys  and  girls  by  the  thousands 
ami    ot    tend;.,  re nI 


tX 


s,   who  if  living  to-day  would  be 

found  in  the  pniiiar-v  irrades  at  school,  were  swept  into 
the  rriiils  I  he  London  local  officials  repeatedly  sent 
out  waj^onloa  iS  of  these  children  to  be  apprenticed  to 
rlic  riod  n'AruTs  of  Lancashire. 

1  he  niuority  of  the  factory  children  did  not  begin 
work  unto  nine  years  of  age,  but  a  great  many  began  at 
seven  and  snrne  at  six  and  even  five.''  ^  The  regular 
working  day  was  for  twelve  hours,  in  some  quarters  thir- 
teen; and  since  m  maiiv 


(  )  ! 


inaciiiiw 


to  sto|)pa^e 

work,  the    .1 

and   *>c.  i^'<  'H  de.    ! 

allowed  tcH'  dinner  ar 

for  ileanmir  tiie   -ei. : 

t     was     vaiv.u*aO.  vi     wi 


)ries  all  losses  of  time  due 

a  to  be  made  up  by  extra 
olonged  to  fourteen  hours 
;  I  ilf-hour  intervals  were 
}  tea,  but        se  brief  recesses  Were 

inerv  n^  n-rd  aq  for  eating  meals. 
r  '     r  monotonous 


Progressive  Le^laHon 


6^ 


tasks  back  and  forth  in  attending  their  machines  some  of 
the  children  had  to  walk  in  a  day  a  distance  of  twenty 
miles.    Thev  were  surrounded  by  a  vicious  moral  atmos- 
phere, were   gi\en  no  education  worth  the  name,  were 
often  cuffed  and  kicked  about  by  older  operatives  of 
brutal  character,   were   sometimes  maimed   for  life  by 
the  unfenced-off  machinery,   and  were  early  robbed  of 
their  bodily  vigor  because  denied  their  share  of  sunshine 
and  pure  air.    The  physical  and  moral  health  of  the  girls 
'  V       0  women  especially  suffered,  a  deterioration  of 
futu      motherhood  that  involved  a  deterioration  of  race. 
These  evils  of  unregulated  factory  life  had  deeply  Im^ 
pressed  the  minds  of  a  few  philanthropists  for  some  years 
previous  to  1833,  and  since  the  opening  of  the  century 
their  efforts  had  achieved  one  or  two  slight  reforms. 
Owing  to  the  occurrence  of  a  fearful  epidemic  due  it  was 
believed  to  the  unsanitary  state  of  the  mills,   and  the 
weakened  condition  of  the  young  operatives,  a  law  was 
enacted  in  1802,  which  applied,  however,  only  to  factories 
having   apprenticed   children,    that   "required  the   walls 
of  the  mills  to  be  whitewashed,  restricted  hours  of  labour 
to  twelve   a   day,   and   forbade  beginning  work  before 
six  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  continuing  it  beyond  nine 
o'clock  at  night."  3     !„   1816  Robert  Peel  was  instru- 
mental in  having  passed  a  law,  applying  though  to  cotton 
factories  only,  that  limited  the  working  day  to  twelve 
hours:  and  later  the  working  child  was  given  by  law  a 
fourth   of  a  holiday  on   each  Saturday.     The  laws  did 
not  apply  to  the  wool  and  silk  mills  where  a  host  of  boys 
and  girls  laboured;  they  were  easily  evaded  by  managers 
of  the  special  mills  to  which  the  regulations  did  apply; 
and  yet  when  fully  kept,  they  allowed  a  little  child  to 
be  worked  as  many  as  sixty-eight  hours  a  week. 


1  11 


i.  i"  i  i 


he: 


UII  tcs, 

with    ii..:= 
support  ci 


ever)    i 

able   an 

men    wlif 
^crs/  "  ^ 
rcf orni 
lircumhar 


England's  Progress 

0  all  the  protection  the  state  gave  the  factory 
)  a  id  }Ci  when  in  this  year,  and  at  later 
'Vitarians  undertook  to  give  more  they  met 

N  opposition  from  many  quarters.  Lord 
\  who  was  the  most  prominent  and  influential 
oi  rfie  factory  movement  and  whose  religion 
led  him  to  de\ ote  his  long  life  to  philanthropic  labors, 
wrote  in  his  private  diary  of  the  hostility  he  incurred 
when  II!  e5nL(  a  Ten  Hours  Bill  in  1847.     *'I  had  to  break 

al  connection,  to  encounter  a  most  formid- 

pitalists,  mill-owners,   doctrinaries,   and 

?n    ni rnral   impulse   hate    ail    humanity-mon- 

1  Ic  nanud  among  those  who  then  opposed  the 
able     statesmen,     Gladstone,     O'Connell, 

I  II  and  Bright.    To  undertake  to  regulate 

hours  of  lahiH  was  declared  by  the  political  economists 
an  injurious  interference  with  the  natural  laws  of  trade. 
It  was  urged  that  such  restrictions  would  destroy  the 
prohts  of  fhe  manufacturing  interest,  would  cause  de- 
creased wages,  less  employment,  and  the  shutting  down 
of  factories  to  the  great  injury  of  the  working  people, 
\\<  uki  tlri\e  capital  from  li^ngland  and  would  give  an 
advantage  to  foreign  over  home  manufacturers.  To 
place  a  com|)ulsory  limitation  upon  the  time  of  wilhng, 
ifulijsir  us  laborers  was  declared  a  rank  injustice,  a 
rateiit  \iM!atii!i  of  the  recognized  right  of  freedom  of 
contract,  but  it  was  suggested  also,  apparently  on  the 
principle  that  "idleness  is  the  devil's  workshop"  that 
flours  )i  leisure  might  prove  a  disadvantage  to  the  mor- 
ale cat  ignorant  factory  operatives.  The  proposed  rt- 
sir ut  iih  were  objected  to  also  on  the  ground  of  their 
general  nequahty  of  effects,  for  it  was  seen  to  be  im- 
I      -  ;  i     to  make  a  law  that  would  affect  alike  different 


Progressive  Legislation  71 

kinds  of  business.     But  stronger  than  the  laissez-faire 
theories  of  the  economists  and  the  views  of  the  individual 
and  doctrinaries  were  human  sympathy  and  the  social 
conscience.  ^   The    findings   of   a    Royal    Commission   in 
1833,  appointed  to  investigate  factory  conditions,  placed 
It  beyond  question  that  the  lot  of  these  young  people  was 
inexcusably  hard  and  dreary.     The  nation's  heart  was 
stirred  by  the  revelation;  and  in  alleviation  Parliament 
passed  the  important  act  of  1833.     The  law  prohibited 
a  child  under  9  years  of  age  from  being  employed  at  all 
in  textile  factories  generally,  and  forbade  after  1835  a 
child  between  9  and  13  being  worked  over  8  hours  a  day, 
and  all  children  under   18  being  required  to  work  for 
more  than  69  hours  a  week.     It  made  modest  provi- 
sions for  the  children's  recreation  and  schooling,  imposed 
on  the  factories  a  few  sanitary  regulations,  and,  better 
still,  provided  for  the  appointment  of  inspectors,  whose 
duty  was  to  see  that  the  requirements  of  the  law  were 
observed. 

The  act  is  noteworthy.     In  it  the  state  recognized  a 
responsibility  connected  with  the  education  of  its  children. 
Its  inspection  feature  was  of  value  not  only  in  enforc- 
ing the  law,  but  also  in  providing  reports  which  gave  the 
information   necessary   for  making  later   improvements 
in  the  measure.     It  marks  a  distinct  advance  on  the  part 
of  the  state  in  dealings  with  labor.     For  a  long  period 
the   chief  duty   the   government   seemed   to   consider  it 
owed  to  laborers  was  to  compel  them  to  work,  to  stay 
at  home  and  to  be  satisfied  with  customary  wages;  after- 
wards the  government,  under  the  belief  that  all  legal 
restrain  on  freedom  of  contract  was  harmful,  gave  the 
laborer   perfect   liberty   to   go   anywhere    and   to    work 
for  whom  or  what  he  pleased,  leaving  him  to  take  the 


£ ngla n d ' s  P r o qress 


LI  I  \      i, 


ansequence  of  b's  :icts:  and  this  consequence,  owing 
tf)  Ills  improvident  and  Lonnniic  dependence,  turned  out 

n(,)t  mt  rcqucnrh'  to  he  virtiinl  Nla\\;i-\',  :is  was  the  case  with 
t!ie  fuct'tirv  i;niplf)\'ces.  But  in  the  law  of'  i'^}^}  the  gov- 
crniDcnt  chanix    ^  again  its  position,  and  now  recognized 


an    {>l)liL;atiuii    to    furnisli    protecti 


i  Hi 


:1 


horers  not  in 


the  intcre>t  uf'  tfic  lai?oring  class  only,  but  for  the  good 
ot  SI  it  rv  as  will  This  position  the  state  has  occupied 
t\er  sine.  Hi.:  vork  oi  the  early  humanitarians,  Oas- 
•  ^  *^  :  ,  Southey,  Coleridge,  Fielding  and 
"^      :  aued  to  bear  fruitage  up  into  the 

\cry  I  •  ^^cni.  tlu  iciuiin  of  1833  being  but  the  first  of  a 
long  scries  of  factory  and  mines  '^^'--  ^o  rending  through- 
out the  leiUur.  \n  the  enforcement  ut  the  voluminous 
protective  labor  cude  of  to-day  are  iii^ijyed  a  host  of 
inspectors,  certified  managers,  medical  men,  and  members 
of  district  councils,  and  various  officials  local  and  central. 
Governmental  regulation  of  industrial  pursuits  is  now  a 
well  established  principle  ot  English  law,  and  generally 
aece[)ta:il„ 

Li  rise  year  1834  Parliament  effected  another  much 
nee  lei  reform,  that  of  the  Poor  Law  System.  "Sturdy 
beggars  h  id  received  the  attention  of  the  English  legis- 
lature as  early  as  the  days  of  the  Tudors.  According 
to  an  ill  I  assed  in  \\\t  reign  of  Henrv  \  1  FT  the  able- 
bodied  heg^iir  was  to  be  "whipped  for  the  first  offense; 
to  ha\e  h^-  rigiit  ear  cropped  for  the  seccMid  offense; 
anil  to  he  imprisoned,  tried,  and  if  convicted  to  suffer 
de  itli  as  the  cncmv  of  the  commonwealth  for  the  third 
ottefe  e'  Another  law  enacted  under  Edward  VI  or- 
dered the  idle  and  vagabond  to  be  "branded  with  a  V, 
and  to  be  adjudged  a  slave  lor  two  years.  If  he  ran  away 
he  was  to  be  branded  with  an  S,  and  to  be  a  slave  for 


'roi^r 


Legislation 


73 


life."  ^     Under  1 
which,  seeking 

a  clear   distinct.    • 
too  weak  to  eo>r 
to  work,      d  h: 
relief  iroin  tlie  ; 
to  work.     T     the 
out.    Tb 


H'f  V 


1 601  a  statute  was  made 
icy  and  mendicancy,  drew 

'    aeed  and  impotent   per^-^ois 

lazy  ones  able  but  unwill    a 

class  were  to  have,  as  a  right, 

rates;  the  latter  were  to  be  set 

tramps  punishment  was  to  be  meted 

e  was  right  but  the  statute  was  poorly 


administer  0  c^iiocked  at  the  discomforts  of  the  inmates 
of  the  poor  houses,  Parliament  in  the  latter  year  of  the 
eighteenth  century  in  the  period  of  warfare  with  America 
and  France  began  sanctioning  the  system  of  relieving 
the  poor  in  their  homes;  and  of  allowing  from  taxes 
"grants  in  aid  of  wages.*'  Two  ill-advised  measures 
passed  during  the  reign  of  George  III  were  ( i )  the  Gil- 
bert Act  of  1782  which  allowed  the  guardians  of  the 
poor  in  a  parish  to  find  for  the  unemployed  applicant 
for  aid  work  near  his  house, ^  and  to  "add  to  his  wages 
from  the  parish  funds"  if  his  earnings  were  insufficient 
for  fiis  maintenance;  and  (2)  the  "sliding  scale  act''  of 
1795  designed  to  establish  an  insured  minimum  wage  for 
the  laborers,  which  gave  to  the  distressed  person  more 
money  just  as  the  price  of  bread  rose  higher,  and  which 
proportioned  the  size  of  the  grant  to  the  size  of  the 
family,  the  p:reater  the  number  of  children  the  larger 
the  amount  of  aid  assured.  The  measures  were  soon  at- 
tended with  most  disastrous  consequences.  Many  em- 
ployers of  labor  began  to  pay  less  than  subsistence 
wages,  since  it  \\ ais  seen  that  the  laborer  could  depend 
on  getting  a  dole  from  the  parish  funds  for  his  support. 
With  general  wages  thus  reduced,  numerous  laborers, 
finding  themselves  faring  worse  than  those  dependent  on 
the  rates,  were  led  to  declare  themselves  in  need  of  relief 


7  4. 


f: 


Progress 


money.    The  vast  majority  of  the  rural  population  losing 
self-reliance,  were  drawn  into  the  whirlpool  of  pauper- 

!it  marriages  were  encouraged 


ism, 


1 


i niru'M y\  "iKik 


■And    proiligi cy    and   illegitimacy  were    fostered.      Relief 
once  obtained  seemed  to  be  regarded  as  a  vested  interest 
to  be  haiulcJ  Jown  Irom  father  to  son.     Much  of  the 
relief  was  sju  nt  for  intoxicants  in  the  dramshops.    There 
were  corruption  and  jobbery  among  officials  handling  the 
tiiri  Is    till    rates  being  used  to  influence  the  electors  of 
pariianu;jitjr\    bnroii^lis,    and  bribes  being  paid  to   the 
parish  officers  bv   the  shop-keepers  in  order  to  get  the 
I  :iu,)ci  tratU       rhieves,  criminals,  prostitutes,  were  often 
tlu    recipients  of  relief.     Under  the  baneful  influence  of 
tlu    system,  the  poor  rates  steadily  increased,  mounting 
iruiii  2,coo,ooo  pounds  in  1795  to  7,000,000  pounds  in 
1833       The  financial  burden  of  the  system  grew  intoler- 
able, and  in  1834  the  reform  came.     The  new  law,  born 
out  of  the  investigation  and  report  of  a  Royal  Commis- 
sion  tha!   had  labored  on  the  problem  two  years,  was 
soun  !  m  principle  and  corrective  in  effect.     Distinguish- 
mil  sharply  and  clearly  between  poverty  and  pauperism, 
fhr  1  t  iiimissioii  recommended  that ''out-door  relief ,'' that 
1  *  at  home,  should  be  given  only  to  the  aged  and 

.  ce,  and  that  the  able-bodied  applicants  should  only 

^,  r  ilief.  excepting  the  form  of  medical  attendance,  by 
hcu  riiui-  an  inmate  of  a  work-house.  I  liey  advised  also 
tj,  wives  from  their  husbands,  and  children 

ir  an  tin  1!  j  1:  a.  while  in  the  work-house,  and  that  the 
^MirJc'H  o\  cariOii  for  an  illegitiuiate  duiJ  should  be 
thrown  on  the  mother.  I  hey  proposed  further  a  thor- 
ouiihg  aig  reform  of  the  administrative  machinery  of 
|!  \y  ^  V.N.  ^v  grouping  parishes  into  unions,  by  con- 
tra ns- 


provement  of  the  work-houses,  by 


Progressive  Legislation 


75 


ferring  the  control  hitherto  exercised  by  magistrates,  to 
guardians  elected  by  the  rate-payers,  and  by  the  forma- 
tion of  a  eentral  poor-law  board  of  three  commissioners 
to  control  and  direct  the  whole  system.  The  new  scheme 
being  elastic,  having  three  sources  of  law-making,  Par- 
liament, the  central  Local  Government  Board,  and  the 
local  Board  of  Guardians  has  in  large  part  survived  to 
the  present.  Its  benefits  were  immediate  and  marked. 
At  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  unions  a  district 
of  four  unions  with  a  population  of  41,409  inhabitants 
had  954  able-bodied  paupers,  but  as  early  as  June,  1836, 
there  were  only  five.  In  one  county,  ^  ;  sex,  there  were 
6160  paupers  when  the  reform  was  made,  but  in  less 
than  two  years  the  number  was  reduced  to  124.  By 
1836  the  rates  were  reduced  in  22  counties  on  the  aver- 
age of  43  J^  per  cent.  The  decrease  of  illegitimate  births 
was  phenomenal,  being  10,000  or  13  per  cent  in  two 
years. "^ 

A  thoroughgoing  measure  of  reform  gained  by  the 
Whigs  in  1835  was  the  Municipal  Corporations  Act. 
The  municipalities  in  origin  seem  to  have  been  little 
settlements  of  tradesmen,  who  in  mediaeval  times  when 
most  laborers  were  serfs,  had  gathered  in  some  enclosed 
or  secure  place  in  order  to  carry  on  their  trades  or  busi- 
ness with  greater  liberty  and  success.  Finding  that  no 
man  whose  time,  person,  or  property  could  be  commanded 
by  another  was  able  to  prosper  in  a  trade,  they  soon 
began  to  resist  all  outside  control,  disclaiming  in  an.  inde- 
pendent spirit  feudal  obligations  to  neighboring  lords, 
and  eventually  succeeded  in  winning,  sometimes  by  force, 
sometimes  by  purchase,  their  full  freedom.  The  burgh- 
ers decreed  freedom  for  their  children,  for  those  per- 
sons who  had  served  their  full  apprenticeship  under  a 


76 


Em§Und^5  Progress 


dsugbtcrs 


)    i,    I    •   I    I.   ' 


:i  frt' 
t:  s  t  ■N . 
del.  ; 

be  ihsrussci 
ot 


Collected  at  one  centre  with  common  inter- 
soon  holding  meetings  of  the  freemen  to 
isures  of  united  action  for  the  common 
in   incixasing  population,   liowevxr,  it  be- 
ent    and   unsatisfactory   to    assemble   the 
^vi.:i.ni.Qn  whenever  public  affairs  were  to 


cgulated,  and  \ 


n  1 1 


he  management 


I     i  U.'  N  I," 


community's   life   was   entrusted    te   committees, 
c  mittees  gradually  built  up  the  towns,  but  they 
also  gradaiadv  acquired  all  governmental  authority.    Un- 
der tie    I  udnr  sovereigns  who  wanted  to  conciliate  these 
centres    n      id  c    ry,  some  of  which  had  representatives 
ill  the  I  inuiioiis,  many  of  these  towns  were  able  to  secure 
charters   of   incorporation,    and   in   most   cases   charters 
that    lessened    popular    government.      The    cm  poration, 
which   virtually  meant  the  ruling  body,  could  limit  the 
number  of  freemen,  and  in  the  majority  of  the  towns  the 
mass  of  the  inhabitants  became  at  length  unfree.     Of 
Liverpool's   population  numbering   165,000   souls,   only 
5000  were  free,  and  of  Portsmouth's  46,000  only  102.® 
When  the  cor|     r  iti    n  increased  the  number  of  freemen, 
only  those  were  added  who  would  be  apt  to  further  the 
political  and  niatcroii  interests  of  those  already  in  author- 
ity or  wht)  woM^ild  support  a  particular  candidate  for  the 
borough's  ^eat  ni  IdirHarnent.     Honorary  freemen  were 
oiteii  created  bv  the  corpuratiun  who  were  non-residents, 
and  only  visited  the  towns  on  election  diavs.     Such,  indi- 
viduals, though  termed  "freemen,"  were  merely  servile 
un  k  rlincrs  casting  their  votes  at  the  behest  of  some  po- 
litical Miperinrn  who  was  in  a  positon)  to  confer  gifts^^or 
favors.     In  many  towns  exemptions  from  toils,  exclusive 
rights  of  pasturage  in  fields  belonging  to  the  corpora- 


« 


Pro^essive  Legislation 


pi^  ^^ 


V  , 


tion.  and  special  rights  in  the  charitable  ^      "^     -  - 
sttj^vcd  on  the  freemen.     In  some  small  ' 
thing  practically  had  been  pur  in  die  ha  ^.  :..^  ,,.    \    '\ 

Xo  accounts  were  rendered;  ail  was  done  in  secret. 
f  he  funds  of  the  municipality  were  squandered  in  ban- 
quets, in  paying  the  unearned  salaries  attached  to  use- 
less offices  held  bv  tiw  triends  and  relatives  of  the  coun- 
cilmen  Valuable  public  contracts  and  property  were  let 
to  councilmen  at  figures  highly  profitable  to  themselves, 
and  much  of  the  money  Q-ranted  for  objects  of  local  util- 
ity quickly  found  its  way  to  private  pockets.  Of  taxes 
raised  in  some  borougo  92  per  cent  came  from  the 
unenfranchised,  8  per  .eut  from  voters.  Grave  evils 
existed  m  the  judicial  system  of  some  of  the  towns, 
illiterate  magistrates  presiding  over  courts  that  possessed 
the  power  of  pronouncing  even  death  sentences. 

The  act  of  1835,  presented  by  John  Russell,  was  far- 
reaching  in  its  effect.  It  affected  an  aggregate  popula- 
tion of  2,000,000  people,  and  imposed  on  183  boroughs, 
London  excepted,  a  uniform  system  of  government.  The 
one  supreme  authority,  placed  in  control  of  every  depart- 
ment of  the  local  government,  was  the  town  council, 
consisting  of  mayor,  aldermen  and  councillors.  The 
■  d  wei  e  to  be  elected  for  three  years*  term  of 
rfnce  by  the  resident  rate  payers,  the  right  to  vote  being 
given  to  those  who  had  5  n  n  xcb,  during  the  three  years 
preceding,  and  to  '    ^  property  worth  10 

pounds  the  year.  n  were  to  be  elected  by 

the  councillors  for  e  ^^,^1^^  leiin  of  office,  and  the  coun- 
cillors an  !  aldermen  together  were  to  elect  the  mayor 
who  was  to  hold  office  for  one  year  (  rdy.  The  proceed- 
ings of  the  council  were  to  be  public,  and  all  accounts  had 
to  he  audited       I  he  bill  provided  that  exclusive  trading 


England'^  Pro  (fr ess 


1  K-  hi.  V.   . 


pr 

of  the  d\- 
appointed 
tion   to   e^' 


c 


Td 


W 


Hod 


abolished  and  that  the  management 
i    should  be  entrusted  to  a  specially 
u  !  ,  !   trustees.     It  declared  the  corpora- 
o  nf  the  council  and  the  constituency,  and 
fient  of  the  borough  funds  to  belong  to  the 
collectively.     The  general  result  of  the  re- 
o   restore   self-government  in   the  boroughs, 
and   to  i2!vt    control  of  public  affairs  to  the  substantial 

nikidle  ehiNS. 

Ot  tru  innnv  significant  reforms  achieved  during  the 
undei  deration,   none  was  more   far-reach- 

ru  neficial  than  that  of  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws. 

leisure?  formed  the  basis  of  England's  tariff  sys- 
•  their  repeal  meant  the  eventual  fall  of  the  entire 
I  structure  of  protection.     The  laws  placed  high 

n\  J  Ffcrcnt  sorts  of  imported  grain  and  other  food 
s     eere  passed  for  the  benefit  of  landlords,  and 

I  origrin  largely  the  fruit  of  the  teachings  of  the 

e!i!h  vciitury  political  economists,  who  held  it  to 
sMHtial  of  right  national  policy  to  protect  land. 


r 


i  1^  { r    ;| 
tClIO 

iirtji 

U  u  I  ,  ■ . 

j.  !  !    ;  :  .  . 

U-  , ..  J-  f  J 


1 


Vvvnn  the  days  of  Henry  W  encouragement  had  been 
alvcn  lo  lur  eukure  at  various  times  by  means  of  placing 
bnunties  ne  exports,  or  duties  on  imports  of  grain.  The 
HUM  re.e  e  i  laws  belonged  in  spirit  to  the  age  of  com- 
merelal  rehtnitions  and  of  state  interference  in  trade  ex- 
isting before  the  nation  had  learned  Adam  Smith's  free 
trade  principles  and  Jeremy  Bentham's  views  concer^iing 
the  benefits  of  individualism   and   freedom  of  contract. 


T! 


i  i: 


'fc> 


rn\cd  a  chief  part  nl  a  system  of  protective  legis- 
f  is  extended  until  by  1842  it  had  placed  tariff 
1  rh.  ks.  than  1200  articles.  In  1815  excessively 
ri  duties  were  placed  with  the  purpose  of  assist- 
Lo    1  ng  interests  to  recover  from  the  depression 


Progressive  Legislation 


79 


and  losses  that  followed  from  the  era  of  foreign  war. 
Corn  laws  were  passed  in  1822  and  1828  and  a  sliding 
scale  of  duties  was  introduced,  which  provided  a  \  arving 
tariff,  so  that  when  the  price  of  wheat  grown  at  home  was 
lowered  the  duty  advanced  and  when  it  rose  above  a 
certain  figure  the  duty  was  lessened,     i  arliament  seems 
to  have  enacted  such  legislation  in  the  hope  of  making 
the  price  of  grain  more  stable,  which  did  not  turn  out 
to  be  the  case,  however;  and  also  in  the  belief  that  to 
insure   the   agriculturist   a  good  remunerative  price   for 
his  produce  was  to  confer  a  blessing  on  the  whole  coun- 
try.    But  as  these  measures  made  bread  high,  a  result* 
apparent  and  painful  to  the  masses  in  times  of  scant 
harvests  and  of  business  depression,  and  as  they  restricted 
commerce    and   the  purchase   of   English   manufactured 
goods  by  foreign  countries,  a  result  injurious  to  the  inter- 
ests of  the  shippers  and  captains  of  industry,  the  benefi- 
cent nature  of  the  laws  began  soon  to  be  questioned  by 
many.     As  a  result  in  1839  was  formed  at  Manchester 
the  Anti-Corn  Law  League.     Cobden,  Bright,  Villiers, 
Wilson,  and  Potter  were  among  the  indefatigable  work- 
ers of  the  League,  some  of  whom,  it  is  said,  for  the  next 
six  years  met  in  counsel  twice  a  day  for  promoting  the 
purposes   of   their   organization.      Its   financial   support 
steadily  increased  from  year  to  year,  the  subscriptions 
to  the  League  rising  from  5,000  pounds  in  1839  to  250,- 
000  pounds  in   1845.     The  order  discountenanced  alto- 
gether the  use  of  violent  means  to  influence  legislation, 
and  made  its  appeal  to  the  nation  through  persuasive 
argument  solely.    To  the  manufacturer,  it  said,  throwing* 
open  the  ports  will  make  it  possible  for  foreign  countries 
to  buy  our  factory  products  with  their  farm  products; 
and  that  English  manufacturing  interests,  having  an  ad- 


8  o 


EfuiiaHd's  Process 


vantage  over  other  countries  m  fuel,  machinery  and  me- 
chanical processes,  could  compete  successfully  with  for- 
eign rnanufactureN.  did  not  need  protection,  and  wcnilJ 

acquire  foreign  rriarkets  for  their  warts;  to  the  ship- 
owners and  merchants,  it  showed  that  free  trade  meant 
fiiore  freiglitage,  and  greater  eoinnierce  generally;  to 
tfu:  laborer,  that  it  would  insure  steadv  employment  and 
at  better  wages  in  the  factories;  to  the  agriculturist,  that 
the  h,)sses  sustained  on  corn  would  be  more  than  cono- 
pensated  for  bv  the  increased  abilitv  of  all  classes,  grow- 
ing out  of  the  national  prosperity,  to  purchase  farm  prod- 
ucts; and  to  all  the  people  it  said  the  price  of  bread 
would  he  h)wa:red.  One  plain  argument  it  employed  wa^ 
to  have  bakio's  offer  to  customers  taxed,  and  untaxed 
shdhrii;  !    01  In  1840  it  distributed  160,000  circulars 

and  i;oaH  e)  pamphlets  and  had  its  speakers  to  deliver 
as  irou'u   e>  4ajo  ho.;tioa;S/'  « 

In  a  few  vears  tfie  edueational  campa!G:n  bcp:an  to  tcU 
iti    iHihtirs       I'h.-oic    newspapers    aihiiitted    that    ''The 


i..toii!:ue  wois  . 
10   Ibudiao  ■     * 

IXuS'^fO    .Old    i 


In    i  y'4  :i    wiii'.i   pr.  p.i 


4^™.  ^ 


more   Ifc^:   tioiders  ;i|'^|)eared 
■      '         .'      at  parties, 

!  a  ■  T  lOf'.i  ^.'i'o  i "  ^  !.  oad  re- 
fused outright  til  receive  a  dcr^wM^---;  o^'-o  o;:^  \:oa- 
Corri  f  ^a\v  Ixa,^iie  Init  by  184;  he  had  come  himself  to  ac- 
cept at  heart  the  tenets  of  the  assoelatiou.  He  had  come 
to  bcl  o  c  f  Ji  as  a  matter  of  abstract  principle  protective 
dut  es  win  us,  and  that  to  sell  in  the  dearest 


buv  in  the  Jw.-i'i^i  rron-ka.'ts  was  the  correct  rule,  hw.- 
whlk  Ins  1  ec  trade  sympathies  were  strengthening  he 
was  not  vet  .1  the  opinion  that  as  a  matter  of  practical 
statt  N  n  o  dno   1     1  50und  just  policy  the  corn  laws  should 


be 


<  fO  ^ 


shed.     !Tf  was  shortly  forced,  however, 


ji 


o  are  ^ 


legislation 


81 


to  take  a  more  advanced  position  by  foreboding  news 

from  Ireland.     Approaching  famine  was  threatened  bv 
the  appearance  of  a   ''blight"  in  the  potato  crop,     lln? 
**potato  rot'   made  it  probable  in  1845  that  some  3,000,- 
000  of  persons  there  would  soon  require  support  from 
public  or  private  relief.    The  disease  reappeared  in  1  846; 
and  not  i^Av  from  one-quarter  of  a  million  people  died 
from  himiier    fe\er,   and  maladies  resulting  from  lack 
of   tood,     i-acuig  the   prospect  of  actual   famine   for  a 
great  part  of  the  nation.  Peel  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  ports  should  be  opened  in  order  that  the  people  might 
have  bread.     In  tfic  late  lali  of  1845  ^^  ^^Hed  several 
sessions  ot  his    alnnet  in  a  vain  effort  to  gain  its  members 
0    his  own  point  of  view.    John  Russell,  the  Whig  leader, 
rnticing  the  unusually  frequeiit  meetings  of  the  cabinet 
^"-    lorreioK    divining   the    meaning  of   their  confused 
counsels,  saw  that  free  trade  would  in  all  probabiht\ 
come  quite  soon.     Playing  for  partv  advantage  no  doubt, 
as  well  as  seekine  the  iteneral  welfare,  he  promptly  de- 
ehired  himself  a  convert  to  free-trade  and  forthwith  is- 
sue i  a  ringing  manifesto,  which  showed  that  the  Whigs 
couki    1h-   coiaited   on   to   abolish   the  corn  lawc^      'Y\\- 
was  November  22      Peel,  the  Conservative  le  d       was 
forced  to  act.     For  ten  days  (November  25-December 
5)   he  did  his  best  to  win  his  colleagues  in  the  ministry 
to  stand  with  him  for  repeal,  but  failing  in  this  tendered 
his  resignation  to   the   Queen.      Russell  was  then  sum- 
moned  to   iurni    a   ministry,  but  failed  in  the   attempt. 
Peel  was  recalled  by  the  Queen  who  reformed  his  min- 
istry and  carried  through  Parhament  the  repeal  measure 
in  spite  of  an  intense  and  long  drawn  out  opposition  from 
the  mai^-itv 
Janua 


f  his  own  party.    Peel's  bill  was  introduced 
846;  but  the  Conservative  opposition,  led 


82 


England's  Progress 


Pr  ogres  she  Legislation 


83 


by  Gt  HI!.  Bentinck  and  Benjamin  Disraeli,  and  using 
I  \  t  rv  i oiiceivable  sort  of  dilatui)  and  obstructionist  tac- 
tic^ ik:  vlJ  itN  final  passage  in  the  House  until  May  15th. 
hi  ti      in  :;  TJberals  and  Whigs  and  104  Con- 

ser\ativ  v>  \  :  d  for  it  and  229  Conservatives  and  Tories 
^  otcd  against  it.  In  tiie  House  of  Lords  it  passed  with- 
out difficultv  June  25,  1846.  On  that  very  day,  however, 
the  angry  Conservatives  got  their  revenge  on  Peel  by 
defentinir  his  Coercion  Bill  for  Ireland,  which  showed  he 
could  nn  innLTcr  hope  to  lead  the  party,  and  caused  his 
immediate  resignation  as  Prime  Minister. 

I  specially  active  and  demonstrative  in  the  years  1838, 
1842,  fHi'^  was  the  Chartist  movement.  Tn  1842  the 
National  Chartist  Association  had  40,000  members  and 
400  affiliated  societies.  It^  aims  were  (i)  manhood  suf- 
frage (2)  vote  by  ballot  (3)  annual  Parliaments  (4)  the 
d"  ion  of  the  property  qualification  for  the  members 
oi  i'arliament  (5)  equal  electoral  districts  (6)  the  pay- 
ment for  service  as  a  representative  in  the  Commons. 
O'Connor  was  the  prominent  leader,  whose  paper,  "The 
Northern  Star,"  had  at  one  time  a  circulation  of  50,000 
copies.  To  attraet  attention  to  their  demands  great  mass 
meetings,  numbering  hundreds  of  thousands,  and  impres- 
sive torchlight  processions  at  night  were  held,  and  mon- 
ster petitions  with  millions  of  signatures  were  sent  to 
!\i  n  unefit  Peaceful  methods  failing,  the  effects  of  riot- 
niii  rak  burning,  and  strikes  were  here  and  there  tried. 
lie  collapse  of  the  movement  was  due  in  the  main  to 
the  t  lit  that  the  physical  force  group,  advocating  violent 
methods  acquired  predominating  influence  in  the  counsels 
ui  Its  ^uppo^lers.  But  though  Chartism  then  failed,  its 
ideas  fia\e  lived  and  triumphed,  all  of  its  six  demands, 
except  that  for  annual  elections,  having  since  been  gained. 


f 


■a 
k 


$: 


Other  advances  made  during  the  era  under  considera- 
tion were  taking  from  the  East  India  Company  the  mo- 
nopoly of  the  trade  of  the  East  and  throwina  that  com- 
merce  open  to  the  merchants  of  the  world  (1833)  ;  the 
commutation  into  money  charges  of  tithes  in  kind  and 
services  in  England  (1836)  ;  the  reform  of  the  marriage 
laws,  that  allowed  persons  about  to  be  married  to  choose 
what  religious  ceremony  they  preferred,   and  to  marry 
without  any  if  they  cared  to   (1836)  ;  the  establishment 
of  a  general  registration  system  for  births,  deaths  and 
marriages  (1836)  ;  the  establishment  of  the  penny  postal 
system  (1840)  ;  the  revision  of  the  charter  of  the  Bank  of 
England  that  gave  the  country  a  safer  currency,  the  de- 
partments   of   banking   and   issue    being   separated,    the 
power  of  issuing  money  being  centralized,  and  the  pro- 
vision  made   that   beyond   a   certain   amount  no   paper 
should  be  issued  except  against  bullion  only  (1844)  ;  the 
passage  of  the  Canada  Bill  that  conferred  on  the  Ca- 
nadians the  essentials  of  internal  self-government  (1840). 
In  1830  was  the  formal  opening  of  the  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  Steam  Railway,  and  in  1838  a  steam  driven 
vessel  crossed  the  Atlantic  Ocean.      By    1845   the  blast 
furnace  process  of  producing  iron  had  been  perfected, 
multiplying  the  demand  for  coal  and  increasing  the  pig 
iron  output  ten-fold.     In   1838  Parliament  in  making  a 
grant  of  20,000  pounds  for  building  new  schools  began 
laying  the  foundation  of  a  national  system  of  education. 
In  1836  the  University  of  London  was  established  and 
in  1850  towns  were  empowered  to  levy  a  small  tax  for 
the  maintenance   of  libraries.     The   removal  of  stamp 
duties   on  newspapers   and   of  taxes   on   advertisements 
and  paper  in  the  mid-century  period  advanced  knowl- 
edge and  enlightenment.     The  aboHtion  of  the  window 


84 


England^ s  Prog 


t't'SS 


tax  in  1 8  n  meant  less  disease,  as  did  the  forming  of  tjie 

Local    Health    Boards   of   the   municipalities   after   tfie 

cholera  lisita':'^'  ;.  ■  ^  -  The  -A.^king  day  of  the  chil- 
dren in-twccn  ■  .:■•'  s  -^  :^C!C  was  cut 
to  six   and   a   a.o-                             .           '    all  underground 

work  t nr  ho\'-     •:«,..;•  ^ ,  .       ... 

Ill  flu:  same  va  r.  imprisonment  ror 
HI-  ibs  lislicd,  and  duelling  was  ch^ 

rcguhita.)!!  ikclaring  "that  any  officer  wfi 
s\>'ull  he  .ash't  -onid'      J    ■'^'^    1  tws  fiaci  hi 

'  '    '  ' i    '!  n ;  >    'ua u'l 


forbidden. 

2a  a  pounds 


1. 1 


SM^NCd    0">r 
:   lor  stO|)- 


u  aiois  ana  bears,  aiu.!  tor  insur- 


vrv'vvnU'--:\  -o 

pmg  tfic  iirutei  ieiitiiig 

in|T  tile  eiiudoMTicMt  of  more  huniaric  methods  nf  ijeahng 

With  crminials  anti  lunatics,     lai  1843  was  opened  the  first 

public  {eletrrapii  office.     Indicatt\  c  of  the  progress  of  the 

era  \va>  rlu-  ^reat  international  exhibition  of  arts  and  in- 

duor  r      ibd       London  in  1851. 

RBFERENCES 

1.  Walpole     History  of  England  from  1815,  Vol.  3,  p.  393- 

2.  Walpole;  Vol.  3,  p.  416. 
Walpole:  Vol.  3,  P-  4i8. 
Dicey:  Law  and  Opinion  in  England,  p.  233. 
^V  '     '      \^ol.  3,  p.  445-446. 

6.  Omap     •■  ■         d  in  t-    V  th  Century,  p.  84. 

7.  ^^.  1689-  p.   1452. 

9.     W  e:  Vol.  4,  p.  397. 


3 

4 

5 


c 


CHAPTER  VI 

FOREIGN  POLICY   UNDER  lALMERSTON 

During  the  period  1848-1 865  external  events  occupied 
in,  M  Kvernment  and  the  public  mind  about  as  exclusively 
as  0  d  domestic  reforms  in  the  period  1532^1846.  The 
i  rccful  statesman  who  shaped  England's  foreign  policy 
in  tliese  years  w^  J  P  dmerston.     With  the  return 

o    tin:  \\  higs  to  power  after  the  resignation  of  Peel,  the 
Conservative  leader  in  1540,  lie  was  entrusted  with  the 
Foreign  Office  by  the  new  Prime  Minister,  John  Russell- 
and  either  as  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs  or  as  Prime' 
Minister  he  was  to  be  in  control  01  Liigland's  foreign  rela- 
tions  for  an  almost  unbroken  period  of  twenty  years.   He 
had  had  five  years'  experience  at  the  Foreign  Office  under 
Lord  Grey,   1 830-1 835.     England's  external  policy  for 
the  better  part  of  three  decades  then  was  the  work  of 
Palmerston,  one  of  the  ablest  men  of  his  dav,  abler  pos- 
sibly  than  any  one  of  the  four  prime  md        :.  under 
whom  he  served.  Grey,   Ml  bourne.   P    .  f  Aber- 

deen.     For  ten    years   p      eding  his  death   ir.  ,    he 

was  at  the  head  of  the  government,  and  for 
he  was  a  member  of  the  1  I   use  of  Commons 
heady,  self-confident,  decisive  minister,  having  hi 
opinion  on  all  diplomatic  questions  and  not  afraid  to  ex- 
press it,  and  *Vas  looked  upon  by  his  contemporaries  as 
the  ideal  exponent  of  a  'spirited  foreign  policy.'  "  1 

The  outstanding  feature  of  Palmerston's  work  in  the 
taid,    :u    :  cs  was  the  union  of  France  and  England  in 


vears 

-  a 


86 


I'ju/iiUiif  :■    I  r  ogress 


support  of  the  principles  of  liberalism  and  constitutional 
monarchy  in  Europe  as  against  the  three  powers  of  the 

J  ast.  Austri  t  Russia  and  Germany,  that  were  seeking 
to  iiKiint  iJn  despotic  rule.  Contrary  to  the  wishes  of 
the  llolv  Alliana  :  i  was  established  in  France  in 
iHv^  tv  rcxriui  1  a  liberal  constitutional  monarchy 
vindi  r  King  Lou'b  Philippe.  The  controlling  power  in 
tins  g(  Viifiiiiciit  of  the  Citizen  King  was  lodged  in  the 
h  in  lis  n!  till  well-to-do  middle  classes.  England  was  also 
a  i<  n^titutaHia!  monarchy,  governed  until  1832  by  a 
nobi]  ty  and  landed  aristocracy  chiefly,  but  then  experienc- 
ing a  political  n  volution  that  put  in  control  the  middle 
da..  J  ai  n  With  similar  institutions  and  like  liberal 
tan  US    I  not  unnatural  for  the  two  countries  to 

ciraw  I  g  n  when  acting  in  regard  to  agitations  in 
na  a!'  r  nr  ta  ts  that  sought  to  get  rid  of  absolutism 
•ii^j  r  .  :  n  n  h  rms  of  government  not  unlike  theirs. 

1  hi  n  on  of  Belgium  from  1  l)lland  and  its  crea- 
tion inti)  a  string  independent  kingdom  (1830-31)  was 
largtK  flu  work  of  England  and  France,  done  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  will  of  the  Holy  Allies.  To  bring  the 
King  nf  1  lolland  to  terms  the  two  Western  powers  placed 
an  iirilnirgci  ii  Dutch  ships,  blockaded  the  Scheldt,  and 
\riui  rp.-  The  French  interfered  at  the  first, 
the  ambitious  designs  not  only  of  assisting 
to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Holland  and  to 


besiege 


'>  I  i' 


w 


t  h 


the  Bi 
set  up 

tiici-    * 


'.Ti  l\ 


iment  for  themselves  but  also  of  annexing 
lury  to  free  France;  but  Palmerston's  diplo- 
macy invl  firmness  thwarted  that  plan.  At  his  insistence 
the   Inn  troops  who  had  crossed  into  Belgium  were 


\\     ;    .1.   :.    ■    •,   I    i     1.*.    >  '•    I  I  • 


/\'         the  same  time  (1831-1833)  France  and  Eng- 


Foreiffft  Policy  Under  Paltnerston  87 

land  were  led  to  interfere  in  Portugal.     Don  Miguel,  a 
cruel  despot,  had  committed  frequent  unjustifiable  a  ts 
of  violence  agamst  Englishmen  and  Frenchmen  that  had 
been  accused  of  political  offenses.     Palmerston  by  dis- 
patchmg  S.X  warships  to  the  Tagus  had  obtained  a  pe- 
cumary  indemnity  and  public  apology  (May,  1831)  and 
France  had  earned  off  some  of  the  best  ships  of  the  Por- 
tuguese navy  (July,  1831)  when  a  movement  was  set  on 
foo     by  Don   Pedro,   to   remove   from   the   throne  his 
brother,  the  absolute  Don  Miguel,  and  establish  consti- 
^tiona    ru  e  under  his  daughter,  later  the  Queen  Maria. 
While  the  two  Western  powers  as  governments  professed 
a  srnct  neutrality,  they  allowed  an  amount  of  volunteer- 
assistance  that  enabled  the  liberal  constitutional  party  to 
triumph.     Don  Pedro's  troops  were  in  large  part  French 
and  English   volunteers,   a  Frenchman  commanded  his 
army  and  an  Englishman  his  fleet.     Pedro's  forces  took 
the  capitol  on  the  24th  of  July,   1833. 

In  Spain  there  was  a  contest  also  in  1833  between  a 
young  queen  representing  liberal  principles  of  government 
and  an  uncle  representing  arbitrary  rule.     Isabella,  the 
three-year-old   Queen,   and  her  mother,    Christina,   the 
Kegent,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the  deutii  of  Fer. 
dinand  VII,  being  supported  by  the  constitutionalists  of 
bpam  and  other  countries,  were  able  not  only  to  hold 
their  own  against  Don  Carlos,  but  even  to  expel  him 
eventually  from  the  country,  though  he  had  the  friend- 
ship of  the  clergy,  peasantry,  old  nobility  and  absolutists. 
^^  ^en  Don  Carlos  and  Don  Miguel  threatened  to  make 
common  cause  against  the  young  queen,  Palmerston  de- 
cided  to  intervene,  and  arranged  an  alliance  of  Spain, 
Portugal,   France  and  England  to  expel  the  two  men 


M 


England's  Progress 


■e 

ill 


■  •  I' 


'-e 


1 1 


from  the  I'eninsuhi,^     Spain  and  Portxisral  were  to  have, 
if  neeJcil  the  assistance  of  a  French  Arniv  looi  ..u 
lish  1  Icet.     In  this  support  of  constitutionahsm  P 
stori  probably  h;ul  as  his  main  purpose  directing  .; 
airainst  l\m^\:u   Prussia   and   Austria,  the  allied  abs 
powers   of    the   loi^t,      Tiic  hberal  party  triumphs. 
Spain   a>   ;n    Purtugal,   though  Don  Carlos  did  not 
thovn  liis  arms  until  1 840. 

Fahnerston  would  have  been  glad  for  Poland  to  hav 
been  successful  in  her  revolt  against  Russia  in  1830,  and 

•    would  have  given  help,  had  he  not  feared 
aid    to   the   insurrectionists   might   cause 
)  inflict  injury  on  England's  interests  in 
^   was  against  the  vigorous  protests  of  both 
o    I  ranee  that   Russia  interfered  in  Turkey 
0   the  Sultan,  hard-pressed  by  the  Pasha  of 
11a  le  with  the  Porte  the  advantageous  Treaty 
r  Skelesie  July  8,  1833.    This  treaty  opened  the 
s  to   the    Russians  and  closed  the  Dardanelles 
war    ships    of    other    powers,    an    advance    for 
Russia  that  threatened  the  security  of  England's  road  to 

ill  Vi-  >    1.1  • 

In  the  trvHig  years  of  1848--49  when  a  wave  of  revolu- 
tion was  sweeping  throughout  almost  ever\^  country  of 
Europe,  Palmerston  pursued  the  cautious  policy  of  non- 
intervention     While  he  hated  to  see  the  constitutional 

• 

struggles  in  Italv  and  Gerinany  put  down  by  Austria, 
and  the  uprising  in  Hungary  crushed  out  by  Austria  and 
Russia,  he  would  not  give  those  in  revolt  any  military  aid 
but  oiilv  pressed  counsels  of  peace  and  order  on  the  con- 
tending parties,  a  great  disappointment  to  the  patriots. 
He  correctly  divined  no  doubt  that  England's  entrance 
into  the   widespread  crusade  for  national  rights  would 


in  a 
lest    ^     : 

Kussis  t 
the  Fas' 
lenglanJ 
at  the  e 
I 


"VV 


1  ! 


r  t 


(  )  J 


to    ttie 


I  iii 


Foreign  Policy   Under  Palmer, ion  89 

Europe  '" '    '  *  ^'  "^'^^  '"''''  °^  '^^  governments  of 

In  France  the  revolution  of  1848  substituted  a  republic 
luider  Lou.s  xNapoleon  for  the  monarchy  of  Louis  Phil- 
lippe,   and   hv    ,s,2    Napoleon   had   maJ.    hi^risdi    I  m- 
peror.     Paiincrston  preferred  th 
of  tlic  empire  to  the  republic  that 
and  hastened,  therefore,  before  fir^i  ^.  ;         u ,0,.,  .  . 
of  the  Queen  and  the  Ministry,  to  notify  the  1  • 
bassador  of  his  recognition  of  the  new  imperial  &    . 
ment.     H.s  audacity  was  not  relished  by  Victoria,  nor 
by  the  Pr,n=     M  n.ster,  John  Russell;  and  as  a  result  he 
uas  d.s.ns.ci   1,0,.   office.     Palmerston,  however,  got 
even  u  .th  Kussell  two  months  later,  leading  a  group  of 

m'ih^-     R-n""?  uT/^'  Opposition  lobby  against  the 
Militra  B,!l,  which  defeated  the  measure  and  caused  the 
overthrow  of  the  Whig  ministry.     But  the  Conservative 
mm.stry  of  Lord  Derby  lasted  only  a  few  months  (Feb  - 
iJec,  1852),  and  by  the  end  of  the  year,  1852,  a  Whig 
ministrv  was  again  in  power  of  which  both  Palmerston 
and  Kussell  were  members.     M,    1855   Palmerston  had 
been  put  at  the  head  of  the  government,  and  with  the 
exceptio-i  ot  one  brief  intermission  (Feb.,  1858   to  June 
1859,  when  the  Conservatives  under  Lord  Derby  u-ere 
again  m  control)   he  held  the  office  of  Prime  Minister 
until  hisdeat!)  in  1865. 

In  1855  the  Crimean  War  was  being  waged.  The  con- 
flict  had  begun  by  Russia's  sending  an  ambassador.  Prince 
Menshikov,  to  (        -   ntinople  demanding  a  formal  treaty 

Irom  the  Sulta  Russia   the-  rio-l,*      t  .       • 

^,     ^      ,    ^,    .    :        .       Russia  the  right  of  protecting 

the  (jreek  Christians  in  the  East     The  i  r       i,        u 

j  ,  '*"  ^'*»<-     A  "c  i^iijjiiaii  ambas- 

sador at  the  Porte,  Stratford,  considered  that  Menshi- 
kov's  demands  virtually  meant  "the  surrender  to  Russian 


90 


England's  Progress 


r^jjVv'  With  the 
tr»  Fi;  i  Li  ^t:  A  I C! 
ordered  :i  nr' 
the  Sultat!  s 
union  ul  1  r,., 
open  war! an 

•  T      t  ,.-■-., 

in     J  :nv  .      I    -   'Si 

ri)n   lie  SI  i^^  -'v  Cv 


influence,    management    and    authority   of    the    Greek 

churches  and  clever  throughout  Turkey,  and  eventually, 
therefore,  t  1  tlu  whole  Greek  population  dependent  on 
the  priests.  '  ReaHzing  that  Russia's  move  had  as  its 
liltt  rior  |Hir|H)se  territorial  aggression  on  Turkey,  which 
fu  rh   r   I  riiiicc  nor  flngland  fancied,  Stratford,  in  com- 

iiii       \     '  issador,  persuaded  the  ^   ■■an 
hiku/i    v  juest,  whereupon  Czar  Nicholas 
n-y  force  to  occupy  Knuiiianiu,  a  part  of 
I  unions,  which  being  done  soon  led  to  a 
and  France   against   Russia,   and  to 
Russia's  troops  entered  Turkish  territory 
and  a  few  months  later  a  Russian  squad- 
r   \i  1  a  Turkish  fleet  at  Sinope.     England  and 
then  SI  III   then    warships  through  the  Bosphorus, 
forcing  the    Russians  to  take  refuge  in  the  harbour  of 
Sebastopol  (January,  1854).     They  next  issued  an  ulti- 
fiKituiii  u:>  iht    i  /ar,  threatening  hostihty  unless  he  with- 
^rvw   lis    t    re  IS    from   Turkish  territory.     Their  order 
was  diMi  Liar  ii  ih  and  they  declared  war,  March  27,  1854. 
Thoui^h  Luiai    \berdeen  was  the  Prime  Minister  at  this 
fMK     it  ^vas  his  Secretary,  Palmerston,  that  pressed  Eng- 
land <ni  t^  the  contest,  and  when  general  dissatisfaction 
with  Aberdeen's  slack  and  dilatory  conduct  of  the  war 
caused  his  resignation  in  1855,  it  was  the  energetic  Pal- 
merston who  was  given  his  office.     In  May,  1855,  Victor 
Immanuel,  King  of  Sardinia,  added  some  of  his  troops 
to  the  military  forces  of  FnQ:land  and  France.     The  war 
lasted  two  years,  cost  1      •       I  77,000,000  pounds,  added 
33,000,000  to  the  national  debt,  and  took  the  lives  of 
20,000  British  soldiers,  most  of  whom  died  from  disease 
and    lu-lca    due   to   inexcusable    army   mismanagement. 
The  siege  of  Sebastopol  by  the  allied  forces  lasted  n 


Foreign  Policy  Vuder  Palmerston  91 

months    and  cost  100,000  lives.     In  the  famous  charge 
ot  the  Light  Brigade,  caused  by  a  misinterpreted  order, 
—forward  for  a  mile  and  a  half  under  a  concentrated 
fire  from  all  sides,  and  then  return,— there  was  a  loss  of 
"3   killed   and    154  wounded   out   of  670   cavalrymen. 
1  he  want  of  proper  shelter,  diet,  medicines,  nursing,  and 
hospital  service  caused  a  frightful  death-rate,  thousands 
dying  from  cholera,  scurvy,  dysentery,  and  fever.     Re- 
fore  Florence  Nightingale  and  her  nurses  had  introduced 
better  conditions,  the  daily  average  of  the  sick  for  awhile 
was  not  much  under  14,000  patients.     With  the  fal!  of 
Sebastopol,  September  5,  1855,  the  defence  of  which  cost 
Kussia  not  far  from  250,000  lives,  the  war  drew  towards 
a  close.    The  peace  terms  were  not  concluded,  however 
until  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  x\iarch  30,  1856.    This  agree- 
ment »  provided  for  Russia's  restoration  of  Turkish  terri- 
tory  occupied  during  the  war;  the  recognition  of  the  integ- 
rity of  the  Ottoman  Empire  and  its  admission  as  a  statue 
into  the  "concert  of  Europe" ;  the  promise  of  non-interven- 
tion on  the  part  of  European  states  in  Turkey's  internal 
affairs;  the  promise  of  the  Sultan  to  better  protect  his 
Christian  subjects;  the  prohibition  of  the  ships-of-war  of 
any  other  nation  entering  the  Black  Sea,  and  of  the  estab- 
hshing  of  arsenals  on  its  coasts  by  Russia  or  Turkey;  the 
free  navigation  of  the  Danube;  the  abolition  of  Russia's 
protectorate  over  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  and  the  in- 
dependent administration  of  these  provinces  under  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Sultan  and  the  joint  guarantee  of  the 
power?      In  this  war  England  had  successfully  thwarted 
Russia,  saving  Turkey  from  her  grasp;  but  she  did  not 
succeed  in  her  hopes  of  permanendy  checking  or  crippling 
Russia  or  of  reforming  the  Ottoman  State.    The  Eastern 
Question  still  remained.     The  war  showed  to  England 


92 


F^irrfand^s  Progress 


the  ill  preparedness  of  her  military  organ!/  itMns;  gave 

to  the  liirkish  government  an  increased  importance, 
added  to  tht:  l^'rcncli  inilitary  glory,  and  secured  to  the 
Sardinians  the  trie  n  Iship  of  France  that  aided  them  m 
ousting  Ausrr  !  dy  m  1859.     Thet^catv,  a 

luii-opean  settk-n.  nr  r,.,,..  .  m.  .^goatures  of  Austria, 
hjinlaruh  Picdniofit,   hraiicio   Rus^^b  and    f  urkey. 

In   i'^;h  h:-;;j:    ■  aiiie  i!i\-olved  in  a  brief  war  wjth 

Persia  I  hi  sh  ih  at  the  instigation  of  Russia  had  tried 
to  conoutr  \:a;aoi:^'in  and  li:id  hdd  sieire  to  Herat.  To 
keep  tins  vi  mountainous  country,  Afghanistan,  as  a 

blitlir  state  luivvecfi  Russia  and  India  was,  and  is,  Eng- 
hirui'N     ann.       I^Unierston    felt    that    i^crsia's    advance 
>houl  1  he  resisted  on  the  principle  of  repelling  "the  first 
opening:  uf  trenches  against  India  Is    h        ad'     Then  too 
rhe  sh:di  was  mn  ohservine  his  treaty  u^xigations  with 
KnuJ   n  1      1  riendly  remonstrances  having  failed,  a  nuli- 
t  uv  and  naval  force  under  the  command  "f  Sir  James 
( Jutrain  was  promptly  sent  to  the  Persian  Gull,  the  port 
of   Ikishirc  was  captured,  and  an  inland  advance  under 
Uutram   and   H  , .    :  )ck  made  that  resulted  in  capturmg 
one   or   t\M:.   iortified  stations,  in  defeating  the   Persian 
troops  that  ottered  resistance,  and  in  the  Shah's  evacua- 
tion .  f   li.r  t  and  suit  for  peace.     In  March,   1857,  a 
pca.c  treatv  uas  signed  in  which  the  Shah  promised  a 
wirhcirawil    '1   troops  from  Herat,  a  relinquishment  of 
all  d  ii  !-  o;  sovereignty  over  any  part  of  Afghamstan, 
an    ahsicnt  ..11    from   all   interference   with   the   indepen- 
dence (if  the  -^tatc,  and  the  submission  for  settlement  of 
a!!  ditten  nces  that  might  arise  with  Russia  to  the  friendlv 
office,  of  tlic  British  government  before  recourse  should 
fic  fKui  to  arms. 


Foreii/n  Pn'^cy  J -ruhr  Palmcrston 


In 

caii^ 
flag, 
none 


^3 


insult  t,:  r'le  !i,g,  as  did  the   !    ,   :  . 
tihties  were  begun.     Owing  tu  ti,e"o,)' 


'    -^erston  decided  to  make  war  on  China  be- 

s  there  had  seized  a  ^  esse!  flying  the  I  ngli>h 

:   '!f"^^  to  fi^^-p  '"    "   i  piratical  craft,  but 

^sti;ePnmeMimster      ,   ;n:edtheactasan 

--a^le,   and   lios- 

_„„.;       .     T    ,.^  t>  '^  '"'■■  ^'^^^-^eak  i)\  a  serious 

mutmv  ,n  Tnd.a,  to  suppre..  .-. :  .j,,,  .^e  whole 

more^d  ";^,^"^"^'°"  "^  '^'  governmc         ^  a   vear  or 

,  „         P  •.    o"  ^^"  ff^'-^^tened  by  a  fleet  and  army,  torts 
on  .-K  [  e,hn  R.ver  were  stormed,  and  the  Emperor  forced 
to  promise  reparation  and  the  opening  of  certain  ports 
d^Lst  Tf,"?^"*^  "'^^^  •"  ^hls  Treaty  of  Tien-Tsing 
rScoi     I     ,    u"'  go^e'-"'"ent  did  not  keep.     So  in 

Bn^tish  envoys  and  supported  now  by  the  French,  who 

aru  plundered  and  burnt  the  Emperor's  Summer  Palace. 
Chma  then  yielded.     An  indemnity  of  ^,000,000  taels 

Sirr'.  '  '^'  r*"'  "^  Tien-Tsing  was  opened  to 
Bn  ish  trade  a  small  part  of  Canton  was  ceded  to  Great 
Britain,  as  the  dependency  of  Hongkong;  and  the  for- 
mer Ireaty  of  Tien-Tsing  was  properly  ratified.  This 
provided  for  the  opening  of  several  ports,  the  having  of 
consuls,  the  statement  of  the  judicial  rights  of  subjects, 
and  the  permanent  establishment  at  Pekin  of  a  British 
Mmister. 

In  these  same  years  (1859-61)  the  Italians  under  Vic 
tor  Immanuel  Cavour  and  Garibaldi  were  building  up  a 
United  Italy  by  overthrowing  the  petty  princes  of  Cen- 
tral  Italy  and  pressing  back  Austria,  a  feat  verv  pleasing 
to   Palmerston.     In   i86i    the  new  kingdom  \ra.   pro- 


i  -^ 


England*^  Progress 


I.  ■  ^  '  <• ' ' ' 


I   I 


,t  *  v 


'1.1 


rruTst 
Poles 

f       '     . 


•Cill' 


claimed,  which  included  then  all  of  Italy  except  Rome  and 
Venice,  the  one  held  by  the  Pope  supported  by  the  Cath- 
olic  French   unul    1870  and  the  other  held  by  Austria 

until  1866. 

In     the    desperate,    unsuccessful    Polish    insurrection 
ki.ssiaii  control  in  1862-63,  and  in  the  Schleswig- 
\  secession  from  Denmark  made  possible  by  the 
rendered  by  Austria  and  especially  by  Prussia, 
u;  r   kingdom  eventually  got  the   duchies,   Pal- 
strated,  but  in  vain,  in  the  interest  of  the 
!):iiu>.     Had  Xapoleon  III  been  willing  to 
w  itii  hiiiK  an  armed  intervention  of  the  French 
S  >  would  probably  iiave  occurred. 

\-    rican  War  of  Secession  (1861-1865)  Palm- 
sM^  uui  slow  in  recognizing  the  Confederates  as 
cnt<^.   nn  act  very  objectionable  in  the  Federals, 
ag  to  many  Englishmen.     While  there  was 
a  ,      :,   ,  ly  of  people  in  England  who  favored  the 

North  :is  bt  irn^  engaged  in  a  crusade  for  the  aboHtion  of 
slavery,  tin  ic   wis  also  a  large  party  favorable  to  the 
South,  some  of  whom  disliked  the  Northerners  as  com- 
mercia!  rivals  and  high  protectionists,  others  of  whom  re- 
garded the  Confederates  as  in  a  noble  struggle  for  free- 
dom, and  still  others  who  "thought  that  the  balance  of 
power  in  the  world  would  be  better  kept  if  the  vast  re- 
public  in   the   W  e^^     nlit  asunder.'^     The  effects  of  the 
Federal  blockade  of  southern  ports  were  keenly  felt  in 
(ircat   Britain      Since  as  yet  India  and  Egypt  were  not 
L       u     ri\ais  of  America  in  cotton  growing,  the  Lanca- 
shire        ?  factories     were     directly     dependent     on 
Southern  e  ;      ^  of  raw  material.     In  this  industry  the 
manutacturer>    had    to    cease    operations,    and    "skilled 
artisans  were  thrown  out  of  work  at  the  rate  of  10,000 


but 


t-  f 


t  1 


/ 


/ 


" 


Foreign  Policy  Under  Palmerston  95 

a  week.''     Tn  the  latter  part  of  1862  many  of  the  labor- 
ing population  of  the  cotton  factory  districts  had  to  be 
supported  by  charity.     The  Government  gave  600,000 
pounds  for  their  aid  and  2,000,000  more  were  raised  by 
general    subscriptions.^       "In    December,     1862,    some 
50,000  persons  were  receiving  regular  rehef,   and  the 
weekly  loss  of  wages  was  estimated  at  168,000  pounds.''  « 
England  was  brought  perilously  near  to  war  with  the 
Federal    government   when    the    British   naval    steamer 
"Trent"  voyaging  between  neutral  ports  was  stopped  by 
the  Captain  of  a  Federal  man-of-war,  in  order  to  take 
from  it  two  Confederate  envoys.  Mason  and  Slidell,  who 
were  on  their  way  from  Havana  to  Europe.     At  one 
time  in  the  controversy,  before  the  captives  were  sur- 
rendered, Palmerston  began  to  send  into  Canada  a  con- 
siderable army;  the  militia  and  volunteers  in  the  province 
were  put  upon  a  war  footing;  and  fiery^  feeling  was  kin- 
dled throughout  the  United  Kingdom  in  vindication  of 
insulted  honor.      This  state  of  opinion   in  England  ac- 
counted  in   part   for  the   ease   with   which   Confederate 
agents  succeeded  in  having  fitted  out  in  British  dock- 
yards   destructive    privateers,    such    as    the    Alabama, 
Georgia,  Florida,  Shenandoah  and  Rappahannock.     The 
failure  of  thic  English  government  to  detain  the  Alabama 
after  having  been  notified  by  the  Federal  authorities  that 
the  vessel  was  a  Southern  war  ship  in  disguise,  cost  Great 
Britain  3,000,000  pounds,  an  award  granted  in  1872  by 
a  board  of  arbitration  sitting  at  Geneva.     Palmerston's 
ministry  hardly  reckoned  that  their  Southern  sympathies 
would  cobi   I    ^: and  quite  so  much  in  gold.     When  this 
war  closed  in  April,  1865,  Palmerston  was  but  within  a 
few  months  of  the  end  of  his  long  and  active  career.    He 
died  October  18,  1865,  at  the  advanced  age  of  81. 


96 


I. 

2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 

6. 

7. 
8. 


En§lm^s  Progress 


REFERENCES 

Oman:  p.  83. 

Bright:  Constitutional  Monarchy,  p.  1463. 
Bright:  Constitutional  Monarchy,  p.  1465. 

L^       md  Sanders:  p.  lOi. 
Iayw  and  Sanders:  p.  124. 

(  Jnian  :  p.   14  i  • 

Oman  :   p.    148-149. 

Br      t     Giuuth  of  Democraq^,  p.  382. 


kJ^ 


CHAPTER  VII 

THf-   MiXfsTRv  OF  RUSSELL 

1865-1866 

With  the  death  of  Palmerston  in  1865,  the  veteran 
Whiff,  Earl  John  Russell,  at  the  advanced  age  of  74  sue 
ceeded  to  the  Premiership. 

Just  after  accession  to  power  the  government  received 
lit  u  b  of  a  negro  insurrection  in  Jamaica.  A  considerable 
crowd  of  blacks  having  grievances  as  to  wages,  rents  and 
administration  of  law  and  justice,  but  especially  angered 
by  an  attempt  to  arrest  and  punish  some  of  their  number 
who  had  beaten  a  policeman,  began  rioting.  They  broke 
into  stores,  into  the  jail,  burnt  the  court  house,  killed 
18  men  at  the  start,  and  then  scattered  in  -  '^-- igh 

the  country,  attacking  plantations  and  n  : 
of  the  whites.  Martial  law  was  procl  n  1 
trict  of  revolt  bj    Mr.  Eyre,  Governor  of   •  ■; 

troops  were  sent  in,  and  the  infliction  of  most 
punishments  begun.     Though  the  rebellion  was  ( 
put  down,  martial  law  continued  in  force  for  three  :s 

longer  and  vengeance  was  not  satisfied  before  a  t  h  ! 

dwellings  were  burned,  439  persons  put  to  death,  1  . 
more,  many  of  them  women,  severely  flogged.  1  irit  Mr. 
Gordon,  a  proprietor  and  Baptist  preacher,  1  S  was 
wrongly  supposed  to  have  inspired  the  insurrection,  was 
tried  by  court  martial,  condemned  on  the  flimsiest  sort  u! 
evidence  and  executed.  Such  murderous  proceedings  in 
the  name  of  law  stirred  up  so  much  criticism  in  England, 

97 


oS 


England's  Progress 


that  the  government  was  led  to  appoint  a  commission  to 
cnqune  irit)  the  facts  of  the  situation.  The  commis- 
b!  )ricr5  rcpt^rted  that  while  the  rising  was  of  a  most  dan- 
gerous character,  and  Governor  Fvrc  was  to  be  com- 
mended for  liis  promptness,  skill  and  \igour  in  suppres- 
sing it  still  martial  law  had  been  continued  much  too 
h)ng.  tlicit  executions  had  been  too  frequent,  that  the  burn- 

-  s  was  wanton  and  cruel,  and  much  of 
barbarous.      Governor   Eyre   was 


n    r 


QCy       *£3 


:  1 1.  i  J  V  >  V 


the 


refore  recalled  to  England,  where  for  several  years 
\  airi  etiorts  were  made  by  a  group  of  men  to  prosecute 
him  for  "high  crimes  and  misdemeanors  in  acts  of  alleged 
abuse  en  1  oppression  under  colour  oi   execution  of  his 

office  as  ( Tovemor  of  the  Island.''  ^  But  as  Eyre's  wr  ng 
acts  \\  cornjiiitted  in  efforts  to  assc  ^  F  j''sh  author- 
ity an  i  supremacy,  they  were  apt  to  be  condoned  by  a 
considerable  section  of  the  British  public.  The  grand 
jury  threw  out  all  bills  brought  against  him,  and  in  1872 
Parliament  showed  its  attitude  by  voting  a  sum  of  money 
to  repav  him  for  expenses  incurred  in  defending  himself. 


In 


v:  f 


IT-,  f    '   i 

I  J  I      i     . 


era  I  suiU'ersiOi] 


us  trouble  arose  in  Ireland.  The  Fenian 
!,  a  secret  society  formed  as  early  as  1858 
tt  ot  Xew  York  and  composed  chiefly  of  Irish- 
Americans,  was  piannmg  a  militarv  rr\  It  that  sought 
not  onh   the  independence  of  the  ishmd,  but  also  a  gen- 

i  of  society  and  a  wholesale  redistribution 
The  unhappy  state  of  tleii  country,  its 
litical  subjugation,  its  racial  and  religious  animosities, 
its  agrarian  grievances  and  economic  ills,  such  as  absen- 
teeism oi  hinillord^,  unfair  rents,  frequent  ejectment  of 
tenants  without  compensation  for  improvements  made, 
lack  of  employment,  scarcity  of  capital  and  general  pov- 


I  ■» 


pn 


property. 


crtv 


a  i 


usm!    tor  some  vears   a   constantly  swelling 


The  Ministry  of  Russell 


99 


stream  of  emigrants  to  seek  their  fortune  across  the 
Atlantic  in  the  United  States.     In  this  democratic  land 
they  soon  acquired  the  franchise  and,  being  courted  for 
their  votes  as  their  numbers  increased,  they  gained  as 
men  and  citizens  a  new  sense  of  their  influence  and  im- 
portance.    In  witnessing  and  taking  part  in  the  great 
national  party  contests   and  elections,   they  learned  the 
value  and  methods  of  political  organization,  and  thou- 
sands oi   them  having  been  employed  in  the  armies  of 
both  the  North  and  South  during  the  four  years'  Civil 
War  got  knowledge  and  training  as  soldiers.     \n   1865, 
the  close  of  the  war  bringing  their  disbandment,  they 
decided  to  employ  their  powers  in  an  attempt  to  free 
the  land  of  their  birth.     Fenian  outbreaks  of  varying 
character  appeared  at  different  times  and  places, — in  Ire- 
land,   in    England   and    in    Canada — but    all    miserably 
faih  i       e    reacherous  informer  so  common  in  secret  so- 
cieties revealing  to  the  government  the  designs  of  the 
organization.     It  was  discovered  that  the  Fenians  had 
tluir  faetories  for  making  bullets,  pikes  and  cartridges; 
ee   t  they  were  making  efforts  to  win  over  the  state  gar- 
risons and  troops;  that  their  agents  were  scattered  all 
through  the  country  swearing  in  new  supporters :  and  that 
hundreds  of  men  had  been  brought  in  from  England  and 
Scotland  and  were  being  paid  regular  wages  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  assisting  at  the  proper  time  in  the  insurrec- 
tion.    Alarmed  by  all  this,  Parliament,  at  the  request  of 
the  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  called  a  special  meeting 
and  suspended  the  Hi^rns  Corpus  Act  eii  Ireland.     Over 
a  hundred  arrests  were  promptly  made.    The  Fenians  be- 
came frightened  a        :_c  Irish-Americans  in  considerable 
numbers  quickly  embarked  for  America.     In  May,  1866, 
over  a  thousand  of  their  class  crossed  the  Niagara  river 


lOO 


England* s  Progress 


and  iruTuJrvi   Canada,  only  tt)  be   repulsed   at  once,  how- 


c  \  r  ■' ,   a '. 


t .aa  a.   V 1  'u. 


t. 


Six  of  rfic  invaders  weM,;  .-ar- 
1  shot  no  doubt 


jss.htaiicc   from   the    I. 


i ' 


1,  I    I  I   !,4  t. 


{,         r        i:  y  denouncec 

cl  a  e  ;   it^  unu ...  ;  ,.-  ess  to  pern 


)vement,  and  de- 
boundary  hos- 
tile operaitia)ris   agaaist    a  inendiy  power.      The  Fenians 

\  .  oiiKi  further  their  projects  by  taking 

/lations  existing  between  1    a^- 

v.i'-    ■■       i!  the  close  of  the  Civil  ^V.t:' : 

;  .     ■        .     .   ;  :     ^    ■    :ot  unfriendly  ^uta- 

a.     a  that  conflict  and  t  > 
c    \  •nifederacn''  as  was  represented 


1  1  i  I  V  i.       j  I  «  i  i  I 


1 1 1 J  .1  w,  4    a  J  i  1  i    t  1  I 


an  estiaiatre^'"  '■' 
tude  of  I  a^:  a'  : 

such  mdiri..  t   ,{• 
in   the  stdl   \\n  . 
J  he  I  v\>:    \\ . 
riataa,rss  ai  Ntiatc. 
were  niaaiiana.t:; 
coasr~i.;ae  rJ  ^'  .a' 


»  I 


•  f^   i 


\labama  Claims. 
it  seems,  to  embroil  the  two 
.    :    .   I  enian  activities  in  Ireland 
]  political  barracks,  raids  on 
^  >  and  ammunition,  cutting 

tciegrapli    aaes,   duA   phicing  obstructions  on  railways. 

.'   s  was  to  direct  the  n^'a^i   nf 
:       .    'H   of   the    rieeiis    oi     i  o  i.^nd, 
a       :    .   the  work  of  Gladstone  b  r 
n  later  tue  ming  Prime  Minister. 

r  the  introduction  of  a   new 

a olitical  life.     With  the  passing  of  Palm- 
ist: to  influence  of  C  dadstone  begins  an 
a  a:    liberalism.      Paimerston    possessed 
i    N  11  of  the  aristocratic  Old  Whigs.    He 
se  of  Commons  for  more  than  a  half 
greater    part    of   this    time   he    hehi 
ral  ministry;  and  like  the  majority 
middle  class  rule  but  distrusted 
'    of  the  few  radicals  m  Parlia- 


One  e 

raighua.,!    to    a    v 
vvhiefi  uaAS  a  pre; 
this  Ciiuntsx  a  ra 
l\  as^ci  I  j'^    ra  a  i 
onler  la  i  n^i  =  >ri 
erstoii  aiaj  the 
era     ol     tlena u.  ra* 
the  staid  eoiiser\e,i 
had  been  in  tfie  1  1 
century.      1         ' 
office  in  a  W :..,: 
of  has  p.ir!>   aiaa 
the  rna^sv  >      I  "  • 


Th^  Ministry  of  Russell 


lOI 


mcnt  and  the  noisy  demands  of  the  Chartists  outside  did 
not  win  his  favor  or  support.     11  s  reeog-nized  aversion 
and  opposition  to  political  innovations  gained   f e  r  him 
the  allegiance  of  not  a  few  Conservatives  and  Tories, 
who  being  unable   to  put  one   of  their  own  party  at 
ine    head    of    the    government    supported    Paimerston 
for  fear  that  a  more  radical  Liberal  might  come  into 
power.      He   did  not  consider  it  wise    t  )   inerease    the 
political  power  of  the  people  by  iowermg  further   the 
franchise;  and  had  taken  as  long  a  stride  as  he  intended 
to  take  in  this  direction  in  1832  when  the  middhr  ehiss, 
the  merchants  and  10  pound  houst  holders  were  b  a  ueht 
into  the  electorate.    Since  1855         -^J  been  at  the  head 
of  the  Liberal  party;  but  he  ha  a    a  a       ed  rather  than 
encouraged  the  efforts  of  the  fe^^    a  auer  spirits  within 
It  who  believed  improvements  might  be  made  in  the  con- 
Mution.     One  of  these  was  William  h  vart  Gladstone, 
'w,    ablest  member  in  Pahaerston's  cabaaoe  who  for  six 
vears  had  been  Chancelicn-     '   *-r  ^\Ja;quer  and  wfiose 
successful  financial  budgets  and  e       cnt  administration  of 
office  had  revealed  him  to  the  nation  as  a  statesman  of 
the  first  rank,      f  h  r^'d  not  like  Palmerston's  habit  of 
making  great  expenditures  of  the  people's  money  on  mili- 
tary purposes  and  contingencies,  nor  his  way  of  diverting 
the  nation's  thought  from  the  consideration  of  needed 
home  reforms.     He  believed  too  the  time  was  at  hand 
for  a  widening  of  the  electorate.     1     ..erston  was  well 
aware  of  his  opposition  and  restiveness.     "When  that 
.  man  gets  my  place,"  the  Prime  Minister  had  said,  *'wc 
shall  have  strange  doings." 

Gladstone  was  an  extraordinary  man  and  had  a  remark- 
able career,  r  !  t  .^  four  times  made  Prime  iMinister, 
heading   four   diiterent   administrations.     He   was    for 


102 


England's   Ih-ogrt'ss 


years  a  member  of  tiu: 
his    fn^>t    cntranct' 


1  i  1 


where  he  riad  taken  n  double  iirst 
matics,  until  iiib  ilcath    (1898) 
eighty-eight  he  was  recognized 


twenty  years  a  Cabinet  officer,   for  over  fifty  years  a 
member  of  the  Priw  Council,  and  for  more  than  sixty 

^)i  Commons.  Almost  from 
(1833)  at  the  early 
Oxford  University 
classics  and  mathe- 
'Ivanced  age  of 
man  of  special 
influemc  an  1  weight,  i  ui  ihree  decades  at  least,  he  was 
the  fureniubt  nian  in  the  House  of  Commons  Me  was  a 
great  a  dinner  of  Robert  Peel.  Both  were  progressive, 
opcnniuideti  students  and  statesmen  ever  seeking  more 
light  on  political  problems,  and  ready,  notwithstanding 
the  charge  of  instability  or  inconsistency,  to  change 
positn an  and  take  new  and  advanced  ground  on  a  question 
when  a  better  iiilcrstanding  of  the  facts  in  the  case 
seemed  t  )  win  at  it.  Peel's  great  apostasy  was  his 
tunnni!  on  the  corn  law  question  from  protection  to 
approximately  free  trade.  Gladstone  in  early  years 
opposed  many  causes  which  in  later  life  he  most  ardently 
chanipiuneii  In  1833  he  fought  against  the  admission 
of  Jews  to  I  Parliament,  but  in  1847  he  voted  for  the 
\  a  i  lewish  disabilities.  The  views  he  expressed 
nn  tie  su   le  t  of  slavery  in  1833  he  himself  declared  six 


V    il 


later    to   possess   "sad   defects.''      In    tlie    opening 


d        h   ni   Ills  public  life  he  was  a  staunch   lory  but  he 
became  liie  recognized  head  of  the  Liberal  Party  for  a 

quarter  of  n  centurv.  and  the  accepted  leader  too  eventu- 
ally ot  t[ie  Irish  and  the  Radicals,  bmcc  1852  he  and  a 
few  !ii  re  l^eebte  i  -  or  advanced  Conservatives,  had 
heeonie  incDrpiaratcu  w  rni  the  \\  liigs  aiiil  Liberals.  In 
i8(K  at  Falmerston's  death  he  took  his  place  as  leader 
ui   trie  Liberals  m  the  House  of  Commons.     And  in 


iV;/;  Mni::^iry  of  Rfjssett  103 

1866  he  was  championing  the  cause  of  electoral  reform. 
Very  moderate  in  its  proposals  was  RusselPs  franchise 
measure   laid  before   the   House   by  Gladstone.     Only 
400,000  voters  were  to  be  added  to  an  electorate  of 
2,000,000.     But  none  the  less  it  displeased  a  faction  of 
30  or  40  unprogressive  spirits  of  the  Liberal  party.    The 
Conservatives  with  the  aid  of  this  disaffected  group  de- 
feated  the  measure  and  dismissed  the  ministry.     On  a 
high  patriotic  key  were  some   of  Gladstone's  speeches 
made  at  the  time  answering  in  debate  his  opponents  who 
objected  to  those  who  were  to  be  added  to  the  voting 
list  as   "venal,    ignorant,   drunken,   unreflective,   violent 
people."     "Some  gentlemen,"  he  said,  "deal  with   (elec- 
toral) statistics,  as  if  they  were  ascertaining  the  numbers 
of  an  invading  army.    But  the  persons  to  whom  their  re- 
marks apply  are  our  fellow-subjects,   our  fellow-Chris- 
tians,  our  own  flesh  and  blood  who  have  been  lauded  to 
the  skies  for  their  good  conduct."    .    .    .    "You  cannot 
fight  against  the  future,  time  is  on  our  side.     The  great 
social  forces  which  move  on  in  their  might  and  majesty, 
and  which  the  tumult  of  our  debates  does  not  for  a  mo- 
ment impede  or  disturb — those  great  social  forces  are 
against  you;  they  are  marshalled  on  our  side;  and  the 
banner  which  we  now  carry  in  the  fight  though  perhaps 
at  some  moment  it  may  droop  over  our  sinking  heads, 
yet  it  soon  again  will  float  in  the  eye  of  1  !  aven,  and  it 
will  be  borne  by  the  firm  hands  of  the  united  people  of 
the  three  kingdoms,  perhaps  not  to  an  easy,  but  to  a 
certain  and  to  a  not  far  distant  victory."  ^ 


REFERENCES 


I. 
2. 


Law  and  Sanders:  p.  199. 

Morley:  Life  of  Gladstone,  Vol.  2,  p.  627. 


man  a  \u 


governr 


t,r  ri  t 


CHAi'TER  Tin 

THE  DERBY-DISRAELI  MINISTRY 

i866"i868 

In  the  work  ul  the  i JiTby-DIsraeli  ministry  which  ex- 
tended frcnn  June,  186(1,  to  December,  1868,  the  hand 
of   Disraeli,  Gladstone's  life-long  rival,  is  evident  from 

i-i  f  %2  t      t  •   '•  ■""!  C  ^' 

i  1  !   b  I      ».  »',./      J  tt  N  i  , 

I  Ic  liid  long  been  the  trusted  lieutenant  of  Derby,  and 
now  that  the  latter  w  is  t     T  ^  the  weight  of  years,  he 

was  not  ]"iU  :-^  \v\  :os*  ..;    o  the  shoulders  of  the  younger 

•  ,:  v.biiities  and  burdens  of 

an]     r    :  !    idership.      In    February, 

186B.  wficn  I  Old  Derby,  being  nearly  70  years  old,  and 
failing  m  healtfi,  retired,  Disraeli  succeeded  to  the  pre- 
miership, thus  realizing  the  bold  and  definitely  avowed 
arnbitiun  c  1  his  early  manhood. 

Original,  and  unique  h  his  character,  siiriirisifiir  arol  lu- 
gpiring  his  career  !  ie  was  born  of  Jewish  parentage  and 
was  as  Ul  infant  "duly  initiated  into  the  covenant  of 
.Abraham,"      .,\t  the  age  id'  twelve.  he.wever,  his  father 

the  synagogue  on  account 
)oy  was  baptized  a  Chris- 
thc  Church  ('•    1  - 
hi^irarvd    he  once  said.      He   • 
I  0     w  well    foppish  in  his  dress 

gorgeuus     waist  am  ts,     t  a  seeded     canes,     flashing 
eian^hiig  gohJ  eh  a  no. 

in  con\'ersatiunj  Ins  wii 

104 


i  r  t »    )  0  * 


ha\  i:iu 

lit  ♦fti'  ''f''**(i\ 

I  '  I      \  i  I  L      .     It!    '  '    ■ 


!!!     ,i!: 


o  a.  N 


ei  I '5 


o 


ill    a 


■eehet  coatsd'     ^r  wr>s 

*■  and  repartee  i 


,  J  i  i„  I 


\\a,tn 


iL 


The  Derby-Disraeli  Ministry  105 

tual  powers  of  Ac  higi^st  order.     I  Ie    vas  a  wrter  oi 
popuhir^  political  novels.     Pure  courage  and  unconquer^ 

f;^^^   ''"''"   '''"-"   paen^:.,,-..    •,,    the   make-up  of   the   man. 
He  was  defeao.,o  .  .r,,  r\::,.-  times  in  ^n^-cf^^^'-u.  :.. 

his  candidacy  at   un:  niot   for  Pa-daimcnt.     i'hoo-d,   he 
fHed   01   rnhi   ior   twenty  minutes  t-    ^oawa    ivs    "■o'eod.^'i 
Hi    the    Houhe    of    Comrreeo^ 


'  <»     V,  '   4,  V    i,  i.  '  V      i  1 


V"'  :r 


-"  disfranc^ 
d  ind 


V 


1 1' 


dru\\io.o  over  and  over  again  by  the 

hostile  opponents  there.    For  fifty  yt 

abused  man  of  his  time  .  .  .  accus 

crime  in  the  political  decalogue/   ^     1 

race  was  the  blood  in  his  veins, 

and  fighting  carried  him  to  the 

nent  m  the  kl^..,c  ui   Comriir)fw   f.ar  nearly  forty 'years. 

^  I^    ua.  raised  to  the  peerage,  being  mar-    F     '    .{  Bea» 

consfieldmi876.   He  was  twice  prime-mii  ning 

the  personal  friend  of  the  Queen  and  the     :a  eso  an  .)f 

especial  influence  at  Court.     A^ocwir  his  }  .  o.^.rs  were  a 

l)\.\L.  of  Oxford  University,  ao  1J.JJ,  ut   hajinburgh 
the  Lord  Rectorship  of  Glasgow  I  nversity, 

^'';:  ;''         '  ^^  <^he  Garter.     Considered  at  first  a  mere 
r  '-  Iventurer  and  regarded  therefore  with  suspicion 

rvative  men  in  Parliament  he  m  the  end  became 
the  head,  guide,  and  spokesman  of  that  very  class.  He 
proved  a  cherished  friend  of  the  landed  and  propertied 
classes,  and  a  staunch  loyalist  to  Church,  Count  v  and 
Queen.  Building  up  and  **educating''  the  Conservative 
party  he  inserted  in  its  creed  two  positive  and  somewhat 
new  ideas :  viz.  (i)  legislation  for  but  not  by  the  masses, 
and  (2)  imperialism. 

As  n  political  leader,  he  did  not  prize  highly  the  jewel 
of  consistency.  Since  he  had  opposed  the  recent  measure 
of  the  Russell  ministry  for  enlarging  the  electorate,  it 


io6 


England's  Progress 


seems  surprising  that  he  should  no  sooner  come  into 

pcnvci    lb  lea  icr  of  the  Commons  than  he  proposed  him- 
self   a   reharni  bill.     'The  truth  is."  he  once  said,  "the 
statcMiian  is  the  creature  of  his  am .  the  creation  of  his 
umv-      I  le  i.  essentially  a  practical  character,  and  when 
hv  IS  called  upon  t^  uik.  uin.e,  he  i.  not  to  inquire^what 
his  nvumms  niiuht  nv  iiv,:l.i  not  ha^e  been  upon  this  or 
that    suhH:ct.      He   ir,  -eilv   D   ascertain  the  needful  and 
thr'bcruanuab     1  biuah  tj.eu:h..a:  at  the  objections  against 
'..,  ,rrin  tjvn    .t  :=  n='n.„  r  rcHod  o!  bis  career  he  advocated 
a  pob.v  S-.r.v.^    a:-   :.   :-^  present  one.     All  I  seek  to 
asa   rain   is.   wiKtiui    as  present  pohcy  be  just,  neces- 
KHu     xp    i    at;   whether  at  the  present  moment  he  is 
prepaid  lu  serve  the  country  according  to  its  present 
nr  cs.itics;'-     ^ow   while  the  nation  had  seemed  apa- 
rtKtie  tuuaral  suffrage  refnmi  (luring  the  debates  on  the 
ic.aita.    defeated  bill,  no  sooner  had  that  bill  been  re- 
icrtcd   rlian   thaia    suddenly  sprung  up  a  vigorous  wide- 
,,.,,.]    lait  ari  HI  h  r  it.     Peoples'  leacrues  and  working:- 
,;„.,.   asM.oati-r.s   u ,.  -     formed,  issuing  their  proteM- 
and  rcso'iut.Mi:-,  ^uxa  processions,  open-air  mass-meet- 
ings. Hoods  of  oratory,  and  monster  popular  demonstra- 
tions of  varying  character  gave  publicity,  and  called  gen- 
e,    !  .tie  nil,  n  t,>  ihc  demand.     The  refusal  of  the  gov- 
crnnu-  t  n.  allow  a  big  public  meeting  of  the  reformers 


,,,  K,   ucia  in    a.V    Park,  1  oiulon,  in  July,   1866,  re- 


suited    111    Vh 


ders.     The  gates  being  closed,  the 

cnnx  d  aiade  their  antaamce  by  tearing  down  long  stretches 
o(  the  iron  railings  encircling  it;  the  police  were  at- 
t  Kked  With  missiles;  and  later  there  was  a  good  deal  of 
Window  snia^hiim  in  thib  fashionable  quarter.  Disraeh 
s  n^  that  the  nation  was  bent  on  having  a  parHamentary 
reform  measure,  and  being  fully  persuaded  that  if  the 


The  Derby-Disraeli  Ministry 


107 


LuaM;r;ata.  c  Mirnstrv  did  not  give  it  a  laberal  Min'strv 
would,  he  determined  to  have  the  credit  of  leading  in 
Its  enanau  11,    uas  averse  to  democracy:  he  knew 

that  hib  f  nay  as  a  wliole  did  not  desire  any  such  reform; 
and  he  probabb  ;  ad,  as  turned  out  to  be  the  case, 
that  some  of  his  colleagues  in  the  Cabinet  would  resign 
before  they  would  support  hini  in  such  legislation;  but 
none  the  less,  c  a  t  that  franchise  lension  was  com- 
ing, he  resolved  to  have  the  shaping  of  it,  hoping  pos- 
sibb.  t  )  luiet  popular  duinour  by  a  measure  less  radical 
than     ru   passed  by  the  Liberal  Party. 

ills     resolutions     (February     ii,     1867)      and     bill 
(Mr    1   18,   1867)   were  neither  frank  nor  democratic. 

11"'"* 

^^'    '^^^^^  ^^^-^^  face  they  wore  the  purpose  of  lowering 
and  widening  the  franchise,  and  of  increasing  the  politi- 
cal  representation  and  power  of  the  labor  classes,   vet 
by  an  ingenious  system  of  **fancy  franchises,"  double  vot- 
ing, checks  and  balances,  they  really  offset  the  political 
influence  of  these  newly  enfranchised  lower  classes  by  a 
correspondingly   enlarged   influence    of   the   higher   and 
wealthier  classes.     The  Liberals  who  desired  reform  but 
not  of  this  sort,  criticised  the  bill  most  fiercely.     Bright 
said  it  bore  ''upon  its  face  the  marks  of  deception  and 
disappointment.'^     Gladstone  called  it  a  ''gigantic  instru- 
ment  of  fraud.'*     The  opposition  under  his  leadership 
began  to  amend  and  mutilate  as  much   as  possible  the 
measure,  hoping  to  defeat  the  ministry;  but  discovered 
that   Disraeli  instead  of  holding  firmly  to  the  principles 
of  his  bill  and  bein^  readv  t  1  resign  when  unable  to  carry 
his  proposal  thruugh   tnt    House,  gracefully  yielded  to 
the    opposition    point    after    point,    amendment    after 
amendment,  declaring  that  he  regarded  the  alterations 
after  all  as  matters  not  of  vital  import  but  of  detail 


loB 


EnaJand's  Progress 


oni  V 


IV  the   Liberal  chief b.     Gladstone 
uu    oniissi   11  of  the  dual  vote,    (2)    the 


Before    the    opposition    was    tlirough    with    its 

changes,  the  bill,  had  been  all  made  oyer. ^  becoming  a 
very^deiTiocratic  measure  and  incorporating  into  the  elec- 
torate a  larger  number  ot  perscms  than  had  been  sug- 
gested  hitdicrtc'"*   evam    .'\ 

sccurevi  '    i  i  )    th.    ....  = .    . 

I   *-;.  .  -.  e,'-.M'''in-il  M--inrhise    i  1.)   the  omission 

bmk  n  tnciii  e,   (4)   the  reduction  of  tlie 

;      a  provision  to  prevent  traffic  hi 

rcdiu  m.n  of   the   residential   qualification 

1     ,^     "       1  2  years  t  >   i   vear,   (7)   the 

nchise,   (8)  the  abolition  or 

it  the  franchise  of  the  house 


{ * 


,   » I 


t   *'*.. 


iount\-    *  ran.-, 
votes,     (  6  ) 


1 , 1 


intri)diictii>ii   m    :    • 
the  proposed  ^a!c:g' 
holder  sheaild  be;-.  • 
with  the  t:t1t\:    , ' 
whctdier   !u 
a  kiiidb,)rd, 


rcuisrrmn 
As  fmallv 
all  male  i; 
in  the  [b 
and  in  tb 


passed 
useliol 


I  •  '  liU 


1 1  '  r 


t 


;he  personal  [nivment  ot   rates, 
the  vote  on  the  householder 
;:       i    act  in  person,  or  through 
{  9  )  alterations  c(nicerning  voting  papers, 
few  seats  and  other  minor  provisions. 
IK.  bill  gave  votes  in  the  boroughs  to 
ers  and  to   di  lodgers  who  had  resided 
..in.]  who  paid  10  pounds  m  rent; 
n    all  persons  who  owned  property 
inniial  income  and  to  all  occupiers  or 
rem    12    pounds   a   year.      It    nearly 
of  voters.    The  agricultural  laborers, 
lor   brought  into  the  electorate  at  this 


c:  .,/:*.b-o.  tile  le. 

}     ',  .\k  i.   were    I... o--   -- 

time  I  heir  enfranchisement  came  with  the  passage  of 
the  (dadstonc.  Reform  Bill  in  1884.  This  measure 
oi  --  was  more  of  Gladstone's  than  of  Disraeli's. 
T!-  Duke  o{  Buccleuch  considered  the  *'only  part  due 
to  her  Majesty's  Government  was  the  introductory  word 

'\\bicra,eis,' 
of   lia\mui 


Disraeli,    had    the    satisfaction,    however. 


C\'i:ra\     "^t 


eered  the  bdl 


through  Parliament. 


The  Derby-Disraeli  Ministry 


109 


The  Derby  lb  ,eli  ministry  had  to  handle  several  del- 
icate questions  ui  loreign  policy.  In  \i  s^iiua  the  king, 
1  heodcoi,  had  imprisoned  several  b^ritish  subjects, 
among  whom  were  missionaries,  Bible  society  agents, 
and  two  special  envoys  sent  from  England  to  treat 
with  the  ruler;  and,  in  spite  of  England  s  threat  of 
making  war  on  his  kingdom  unless  he  soon  freed  the  cap- 
t  \c^  had  heedlessly  continued  their  incarceration. 
I  ii'.^^-.\f^rc  was  a  usurper  who  ruled  in  a  small  empire 
filled  w  b  isurrection.  He  lived  in  a  state  surrounded 
by  bb  h  ciu  dan  and  Negro  powers,  and  as  a  representa- 
tive of  tlie  Coptic  Christians,  he  had  met  opposition 
from  the  r bench  Catholic  missionaries.  IT'k  reason  for 
seizing  the  b  igbshmen  seems  to  have  bei  spicion 

that  they  were  intriguing  with  the  Moslem  i  ks,  against 
Imri  While  a  small  relief  party  might  have  sufficed  to 
release  the  few  prisoners,  the  British  Government  deemed 
it  best  in  order  that  England's  prestige  might  be  elevated 
in  the  eyes  of  the  East,  to  equip  an  army  of  12,000  men 
drawn  in  the  main  from  the  Indian  forces,  and  to  march 
the  whole  of  it  on  Magdala,  the  Abyssinian  capital.  The 
city  was  400  miles  distant,  across  a  difficult  unknown 
country,  poorly  watered,  lacking  roads  and  means  of 
transit,  and  traversed  by  deep  ravines  and  mountain  bar- 
riers. The  expedition  under  the  command  of  Sir  Robert 
Napier,  a  military  officer  of  high  authority  in  the  Bom- 
bay presidency  and  a  civil  engineer  of  experience  and  re- 
pute, was  prudently  conducted  and  altogether  successful. 
The  army  started  in  January,  1868,  and  in  April  the 
fortress  of  Magdala  was  taken,  the  Abyssinian  troops 
havings  been  quickly  defeated  by  the  mere  baggage  guard 
of  thi  b  nglisli.  The  captives  were  discovered  unh  rmc  i 
an b  released.      King  Theodore,   humiliated   and 


I  10 


England's  Progress 


frightifud,     1  despair  committed  suicide.     By  May  the 

attackini^;  party  was  safe  at  home  again.  This  imperial 
"hoisting  of  the  htandard  of  St.  George  on  the  moun- 
tains if  luisscias,  as  Disraeli  proudly  spoke  of  it, 
cost  till  nation  8,000,000  pounds. 

In  June,  1866,  broke  out  the  great  Austro-Prussian 
War.  These  countries  had  quarreled  over  the  division 
and  i^ovcrrnncfit  of  the  Schles\^  1  I olstein  territory  taken* 
from    Dcniiiiik   in   1864.     T  supported  by  Italy 

and  having  superior  arms,  i  :  i  iy  the  new  rapid-fire 
hit  cch  loading  *'needle-gun,'^  quickly  gained  a  complete 
victory.  Whil  h  A  strians  whipped  the  Italians  at 
1  ozza,  and  later  won  a  naval  engagement  at  Lissa, 
tru  si  successes  counted  for  little  in  face  of  the  crushing 
dctei.t  by  the  Prussians  at  Sadowa,  in  which  the  Austrian 
loss  WIS  40,000  men.  In  less  time  than  two  months  from 
the  openir.L!;  ni  hostilities  Xiistria  sued  for  peace.  Prus- 
sia got  the  Schleswig-Iloistein  territory,  ousted  alto- 
gether Austria  from  control  in  German  affairs,  and  as- 
siniK  i  herself  the  leadership  of  North  Germany,  aniicx- 
inu  \  assail  I  lesse-Cassel  TTanover,  Hamburg,  and  the 
1  Ihe   l)i  1  1  forming  a  confederation  destined  to 

t\|  and  boon  iiitu  tlie  powerfid  German  Empire.  In 
this  "battle  of  giants,"  as  Disraeli  termed  the  contest, 
England  maintained  a  strict  policy  of  non-intervention. 
i^rcdt  Britain  along  with  France  and  Russia  had  at- 
the  role  of  peace-making  before  the  disputants 
bhois:  hut  the  war  once  on  the  nation  did 
not  interfere  in  tin  hast.  At  its  close,  however,  Eng- 
land jouicd  rile  Continental  Powers  in  a  Conference  in 
London.  In  consideration  of  the  feelings  of  the  French, 
thev  otdered  the  menacing  fortress  of  Luxemburg  de- 
stroyed, aaid  the  Prussian  garrison  recently  placed  there 


!':  r  i 


had   eojoc    t 


The  Derby-Disraeli  Ministry 


III 


withdrawn;  also  collectively  they  pruarantccd  the  neu- 
trality of  the  Luxemburg  territory. 

The  policy  of  non-intervention  was  pursued  likewise 
with  reference  to  the  military  conflict  in  Italy  in  1866 
and  in  the  French-Mexican  affair  of  1876.  The  Italians, 
having  just  added  to  their  state  Venetia,  a  reward  for 
assisting  Prussia  in  the  Austro-Prussian  War,  were  full 
now  of  the  desire  to  annex  Rome,  papal  territory,  and 
thus  make  the  Italian  kingdom  coextensive  with  the  whole 
Peninsula.  A  body  of  volunteers,  led  by  the  heroic  Gari- 
baldi, marched  on  the  capital,  but  were  repulsed  by 
French  and  papal  troops.  Napoleon  III  Emperor  of 
Catholic  France,  having  sent  a  part  of  his  army  to  sup- 
port the  Pope.  While  the  sympathy  of  England  seems 
to  have  been  with  the  Italian  patriots  no  governmental 
favors  were  accorded  them.  And  in  June,  1867,  when 
Napoleon  1  IPs  ambitious  scheme  for  an  empire  in  iMcx- 
ico  ended  in  the  tragic  execution  of  the  Emperor  Max- 
imilian, the  French  troops  that  supported  him  having  to 
be  withdrawn  at  the  threat  of  intervention  on  the  part 
of  the  United  States  and  the  Mexicans  having  taken  and 
shot  him,  no  judgment  whatever  on  the  affair  was  re- 
corded by  the  British  Parhament.  There  was  consider- 
able excitement  over  the  sad  occurrence;  still  the  Foreign 
Secretary,  Lord  Stanley,  was  opposed  to  the  govern- 
ment h>  taking  any  action.  He  would  have  it  remem- 
bered **that  whatever  the  power  and  influence  of  the 
House  might  be,  it  was  only  the  Parhament  of  the  United 
Kingdom  and  not  of  the  world.''  ^  Disraeli  justified  the 
ministry's  course  of  abstention  from  interference  in  these 
various  conflicts  as  follows:  *'In  announcing  our  policy 
to  be  a  policy  of  non-interference,  all  we  mean  to  sa,y  is, 
that  we  will  not  exhaust  the  energies  nor  waste  the  treas- 


112 


England's   f'ro.p'ess 


urc  of  this  country  by  interfering  in  continental  strug- 
gles to  uphold  an  Imaginary   and  fallacious  balance  of 


power. 


But 


I, 


)ccausc  v\-e 


thus  armourtii    what 


W'C 


call  a 


policy  of  noii-intcrfcrcrux,  wc  do  not  0110.01  to  say  that 
wc  will  not  act  when  the  interests  and  honour  of  England 
require  it;  and  because  wc  nKuiitaoi  a,  policy  oi  non-inter- 
ference (I  the  clouaetei  I  have  described,  that  is  no 
reason  why  we  should  not  sympathize  with  other  nations. 
.  .  .   Uur    interest    i>    that    there    should    be    peace    in 

\         ;    rraiit  development  within  this  empire  in  Feb- 

raarv,    :  -^^o^ 

American  I* 

a  constitio      !  th  o  provided  for  a  (j  )\ernor  ^ 

poiriteii    In-    the    Crown,    for   a   Senate   wh^ 

liie  by  the  Governor-General ;   an  i 

kcted  by  the  people  of  the  provinces. 

cared  for  by  the  provincial  legis- 


was  the  confederation  of  the  British 


O  OlvO,. 


o. 


V.  a  0  a. 


dian  States  united  v. 


wer 


■  ■)  T  \  rv 


for  a  h. 


1  X. 


,egai  at* airs  wtoo 


ariw;  hi 


dies.     With  the  exception  of  having  their  chief 


1 

executi\e  sent  n\cr  f>y  the  Home  Government,  the  Ca- 
nadi  oi  1)  onnion  became  virtually  an  independent  power, 
havinu  lueo  ^I'wvn  entire  command  of  its  military  forces, 


COM  01 

stren^ 
count 
1 1 1 


r»  t  I 


i  ! 


aking      o^  *   v-      The  larger  freedom 
in  1  weakened  the  loyalty  of   the 

!(j  i,  ooot!   iiiolaiii. 

I  sfoa  1*4  of  1868  the  disaffected  state  of  Ireland 
again  diarouuJiuJ  the  goverruruoit's  consideration.  While 
the  atrrn  ian  urie\  oocb  about  leases,  rents  and  evictions, 
the  rcsiiient  1  ngiishman's  treatment  of  the  Irish  as  a 
socod  Hiu  riioo  tfie  socialistic  spirit  of  some  classes,  and 
the  l-'eru an  luitinnalistic  acti\atacs  were  all  causing  trou- 
bles, the  special  grievance  was  the  compulsory  support  of 
the  Protestant  Church  Estabhshment.    To  meet  the  Irish 


The  Derby-Disraeli  Ministry 


113 


situation  o  ^  ^-u-  i  rati\o!  ministry  had  nothing  thor- 
oughgoing or  generous  to  propose,  offering  only  reme- 
dial or  coercive  measures  of  small  scope  for  ills  which  they 
would  like  tr*  fun  e  considered  as  transiton^  and  on  the  de- 
cline. Their  plans  of  providing  a  Catholic  ministry,  of 
a  readjustment  of  church  property,  of  appointment  of 
commissions  of  enquiry,  and  of  dependence  on  force  and 
of  suspension  of  the  IT  -  ^^  C  opus  Act  did  not  meet 
with  approval  from  the  i  erals  who  considered  the 
schemes  insufficient,  impracticable  and  purposefully  dila- 
tory. The  opposition  desired  a  measure  that  would 
more  nearly  touch  the  root  of  the  matter.  When  there- 
fore Gladstone  boldly  presented  a  set  of  resolutions  pro- 
posing nothing  less  than  the  complete  disestablishment 
of  the  Protestant  Church  in  Ireland,  and  declaring  it  to 
be  an  Anglican  anachronism  and  an  abuse  productive  of 
mucli  dl  Will  for  England,  the  Liberals  as  a  body  flotked 
to  his  standard.  The  Irish,  the  Nationalists,  the  Radi- 
cals, the  faction  of  the  Liberals  that  broke  with  the  party 
on  the  Russell  Reform  Bill,  the  Catholics  and  the  secu- 
larists all  came  to  Gladstone's  support.  The  ministry 
opposed  the  resolutions  on  several  grounds.  It  was 
argued  that  the  state  endowed  church  ^'prevented  gov- 
ernment from  degenerating  into  mere  police,*'  that  the 
state  connection  could  promote  or  insure  freedom  in 
religious  practices  and  worship  within  the  church  itself; 
that  disestablishment  was  an  attack  upon  property 
rights;  and  that  to  disestablish  the  Irish  Church  would 
lead  in  time  to  disestablishment  of  the  Church  in  Eng- 
land. Di^^raeli  declared  the  crisis  was  in  England  rather 
than  in  Ireland.  *The  purpose  is  now  avowed,"  he  said, 
"and  that  by  a  powerful  party,  of  destroying  that  sacred 
union  between  Church  and  btate  which  has  hitherto  been 


.1 


14 


England?  $  Progress 


means   o!    our 


cl\'ilization   and  is  the  only  se- 


•ur  rciiiiiijus  iirn,! 


rty/'  ^    But  on  April  13,  Glad- 


>t 


1 


(SO  111  I  on  was  carried  in  the  House  by  a 
^  '    and  with  this  clear  defeat  Disraeli  had 


"s  ♦ 


the  chief 
curity  of 
stone's  !i 
maioritv 

either  to  resign  <3r  dissolve  Parliament  and  appeal  to  the 
countr\  i  n  the  question.  He  chose  the  latter  course. 
Time  \\eis  allow  ej  ai  the  request  of  the  Prime  Minister 
for  passinn:  into  law  a  few  bills  nearing  completion,  such 
as  the  reform  measures  for  Scotland  and  Ireland  kin  in 
principle  and  purpose  to  the  recently  enacted  English 
elect)!!  I  feform  measure:  and  then  Parliament  was  first 
prorogued  (July  31),  and  a  httle  later  (November  i  ith) 
was  dissolved.  In  the  general  election  in  the  fall  the 
C'on>er\.-ati\-eN  suffered  an  tua;rwhelming  defeat,  the  new 
constituencies  formed  by  tlu  Reform  x\ct  of  1867  voting 
generally  for  the  Liberals  who  gained  the  big  majority 
of  1 1  2  seats. 

REFERENCES 

I      Waiford:  Life  and  Political  Career  of  the  Earl  of  Beacons- 
field,  p. 


3. 

4^. 


185. 

E.  Walforcl:  F.  r.f  B^„  p.  171. 

IT  "^V,  Paul ;  Lite  ot  Gladstone,  p.  125. 

l»o.  n:  Growth  of  Democracy  1837-1880,  p.  433. 

iiiieht:  Growth  of  Democracy  1837-1880,  p.  445. 


CHAPTER  IX 


GLADSTONE'S  FIRST  MINISTRY 

1868-1874 

Gladstone's  first  ministry  extended  over  five  years 
(December,  1868,  to  February,  1874).  Believing  he 
had  been  elected  to  power  for  the  very  purpose  of  paci- 
fying Ireland,  he  undertook  at  once  a  settlement  of  the 
Church  question ,  The  provisions  of  his  measure  in- 
cluded ( I )  the  severance  of  the  union  existing  between 
the  churches  of  England  and  Ireland,  (2)  the  immediate 
disendowment  of  the  Irish  Church;  that  is  to  say,  that 
all  its  property,  consisting  of  buildings,  land,  tithes  and 
money,  valued  at  near  16,000,000  pounds,  was  to  be 
transferred  to  the  nation,  (3)  the  restoration  of  about 
10,000,000  pounds  of  this  wealth  to  the  new  voluntary, 
independent  church  in  compensation  for  vested  interests 
and  commutations  of  salaries,  (4)  the  appropriation  of 
the  surplus  to  the  support  of  hospitals,  lunatic  asylums, 
educatlonaF  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  like 
agencies  seeking  to  relieve  unavoidable  calamities  for 
which  the  Poor  Law  did  not  already  provide,  and  (5) 
the  legal  disestabhshment  of  the  Church  of  Ireland  from 
January  i,  1871.  \  grant  made  by  the  state  to  the 
Catholic  Training  College  of  Maynooth  and  one  to  the 
Presbyterians,  the  /'//?;/  donum,  were  to  cease  also 
subject  to  compensation  from  the  funds  of  the  disestab- 
ished  church. 

in  the  debates  in  the  preceding  session  of  Parliament 

"5 


II« 


England^s 


I  I  Uijf'tSS 


J" 


it  h:i(i  bee!T  made  clear  that  th-    \ 
land  could  not  possibly  la,v  iiami 
(dninfi   '     Only  about  one  In  ten 

lc)ne:cvl  to  the  cliiircfi.      In   Muiister  and  ConnnnLrht  onlv 


Church  In  Ire- 
Xational 

i, :  '  ai  be- 


t"-'t 


one  \n  twi 
one  in  f!\  e 

1  ! 


trtfie^^ 


\'^  :  and  \n  the  inoht  FrntesttUit  ihstricts  only 
In  a  ;  risiies  there  were  n«  h  otestants 
ar  an,  and  in  luiruha,;n>  of  thian  no  Frote^starit  church, 
and  \er  tithes  were  being  collected  in  those  parishes  for 
tile  inaHitenance  of  tliis  state  church.  "I  myself  pay 
5  paribile^d*  said  Mr.  G.  Moore  in  Parliament 
"in  the  whole  of  these  there  is  !iot  one  resident 
5  .  .  .  and  I  do  not  belic\L  tliat  divine  service 
the  ProtestaiiL  ritual  has  been  celebrated 
em  >  nee  tfie  Reformation/'  ^  The  non-resi- 
e  were  almost  as  numerous  as  the  resident, 
lage  salary  ui  the  former  class  was  consid- 
er a  bK"  erver  eleven  times  the  average  salary  of  te.  IxWer 
(hiss        \n  investigation  a  few  years  earlier  had  n 

ffuu  \  er  SIX  and  a  half  million  of  Catholics  were  being" 
taxevl  t  )  ma nu  tin  a  church  that  served  about  three  nnir- 
o! s  ef  I  million  Protestants.  In  i868  the  Church  en- 
j  ve  1  a  revenue  from  tithes  and  lands  amounting  to  6oo,- 
ooo  pounds  idle  forced  collection  of  tithes  from  ten- 
ants hel  ft  iHjH  when  the  tithes  were  converted  into  a 
rent  charge  pauJ  t!i rough  the  landlord  was  the  cause  of 
perperuaa  ^irafe.  In  the  fights  of  the  Iri^h  peasantry 
witfi  tin   magiNtrio  s,  soldiers,  and  pohce  attempting  to 


»'i       1    S    1  i  1 

i    I  t      !,    '    .4    '  / 


iU.  m '  ii,  'v  n  e,  n 
aLvOia/iu'ig 
\n  an\-  (.n 
ilent  vieig 
and   th 


a 


Tru>c, 


k  o  1 1 1  p 

w  a  s 
I 


eeioaeH 


1  la 


io  n  i  '■•■■  n  I   i  *  1 1 


t   of  the  parson's  dues  loss  of  life 
urrence.     bydaey  Smith  thought  that 
to  this  iiuNe      n  ail  probability  a  million  of  lives  may 
hive  heer    aerificed  in  Ireland."  ^    The  very  existence  of 

that  Churel]   reminded  the  Irish  of  their  political  subjii- 
gatnn;  it  \\a>  a  sign  that  they  were  a  conquered  people. 


) 


' 


K 


die  biii 
of  the 


Gladstones  First  Ministry  1 1 7 

f  V  e(  u!d  not  hope  to  gain  their  good  will 

e  this  badge  of  conquest"  was  removed.  The 
h  once  faced  the  Government's  obligation  was 
phi  n  to  Gladstone.  His  bill  had  no  prreat  difficulty  in 
passmg  the  lowc  I  !  use  but  in  the  re  i  h  ^ 
was  fiercely  attacked  In  the  opmn  1  n  snu 
Lords  it  was  a  measure  "whose  political  folly  was  only 
equalled  bv  ifs  moral  turpitude,"  "a  great  national  sin, 
a  robbery  and  offence  to  Almighty  Godd'  Referring  to 
the  necessity  of  every  man  having  to  render  an  account 
of  his  deeds  at  the  day  of  judgment,  one  bishop  exclaimed, 
**I  cannot,  I  dare  not,  I  must  not,  I  will  not,  vote  for 
this  Bill."  One  of  the  Peers  would  have  the  Queen,  who 
was  not  in  love  with  the  bill,  believe  that  the  Coronation 
Oath  forbade  her  ever  giving  assent  to  such  a  measure. 
Before  the  bill  got  through  the  Upper  House  not  a 
few  radical  amendments  and  changes  had  been  made,  only 
to  be  thrown  out  for  the  most  part,  however,  bv  the 
Commons  when  the  altered  bill  was  returned  to  the 
House.  Gladstone,  conscious  of  the  support  of  the  na- 
tion, was  averse  to  yielding  to  the  I  ords  to  whom  he  re- 
ferred as  "men  who  must  have  been  living  in  a  balloon" 
so  ignorant  were  they  of  what  the  country  had  demanded. 
For  some  days  there  was  a  hopeless  dead-lock  net  ween 
the  two  houses,  but  eventually  conference  effected  conces- 
sions and  compromise ;  and  the  bill,  modified,  but  in  chief 
principles  the  same  as  when  first  introduced,  became 
law,  receiving  the  royal  assent  July  26,  1869.  The 
resistance  of  the  Lords  gained  for  the  new  voluntary 
Tri^h  Church  additional  property  amounting  to  850,000 
pounds. 

Gladstone  next  undertook  to  solve  the  knotty  Irish 
land  problem.     Between  the  tenant  and  landlord  classes 


I  lb 


!: 


T) 


r.fi(iiarid  :•    i  r  ogress 


of    Ire! and    riiere   existed  a  deep-seated,  long-lived,   in- 
tense aniniositv,  a  burning  hatred  that  for  generations  had 

exprcsscti  itself  ntiw  and  then  in  the  meanest  acts  and 
basest  crimes.  On  :hr  .:-n,c  harivl  for  greed  of  gain,  nu- 
merous liJij..--'  .  .  s^.'e.  eines  a.  merciless  wholesale 
clearing'  .a  t  :.:.^  w.  iiclple55  tenantry  that  meant  dis- 
ease anil  death  t)  hundreds;  and  on  the  other  hand  de- 
struetson  oi  |)roi  erty,  killing  of  live  stock,  arson  and  mur- 
der ihe  iriNi  people  could  not  iurget  that  the  land- 
nwaiers  as  a  class  held  land,  titles  which  had  first  been 
gained  through  mihtary  conquest  and  sheer  confiscation. 
In  the  mind  of  the  tenant  the  landlord  was  but  a  usurper; 
more  commonly  than  not  he  was  an  ab>c!ita'e.  The  law 
nf  teiiaiic\  wah  peculiar.  Over  the  greater  part  of  Ire- 
{  nd  tra  |oe\  dciit  though  not  universal  rule  was  that  all 
the  noprui  emeriti  of  a!)  hulding,  such  as  ditching,  fertili- 
zateai  ,0  trie  soil,  ami  Imilding  of  dwelhng  houses,  barns 
ai i!  um\kk:^  were  made,  not  as  in  England  by  the  owner 
I  the  huld  o  by  the  owner  and  occupier  of  the  land 
ji  ntly,  hur  In  the  tenant  alone,  the  landlord  letting  not 
a  !arim  but  simply  bare  unimproved  land.  The  cost  of 
ma uuv nance  and  repairs  too  whenever  incurred  fell  alto- 
gether tp  n  tile  tenant.  And  yet  at  the  end  of  the  ten- 
aoicy  or  m  case  of  eviction,  conditions  the  tenant  could 
not  cofitr  d,  the  landlord  got  possession  of  everything  the 
temnit  ioid  10.H  on  die  place.  Now  while  this  was  law- 
ful. It  cert.mdx'  wais  not  right. 

I  he  hiw  was  founded  on  the  theory  of  freedom  of  con- 
traa  uul  look  lor  granted  what  vvab  not  true — that  the 
Iristi  tcfomt  was  free  to  rent  or  not  rent  land  as  he 
chose.  Ill  tfec  eye  of  the  law  of  property  and  accord- 
ing to  thic  economic  doctrine  of  free  competition,  the  land- 
lord owned  his  land  and  the  tenant  his  labor  to  do  what 


\.J   i   14  «  t 


tie's  First  Ministry 


119 


lie  pleased  with  it  and  to  get  what  price  he  could  for 
its  use.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Irish  tenant  could 
not  hel|  himself.  The  landowners  were  few  and  inde- 
pendent, the  tenants  multitudinous  in  number  and  pov- 
erty-stricken. The  latter  class  owning  no  land  and  hav- 
ing no  opportunity  in  this  industrially  undeveloped  coun- 
11}  to  make  even  their  sub^ibtence  except  by  tilling  the 
soil  were  absolutely  in  the  power  of  the  former  class. 
While  there  were  numerous  exceptions,  the  whole  coun- 
try being  considered,  because  in  large  tracts  of  Ireland 
estates  were  rented  on  a  fair  system;  still  as  a  rule  the 
occupiers  and  workers  of  the  land  were  mere  tenants-at- 
will,  not  holding  leases  of  several  years'  length,  but  brief 
tenures  that  could  be  terminated  at  a  few  months*  notice. 
And  evictions  were  numerous  and  for  every  possible 
cause.  After  the  passage  of  the  poor  law  of  1847  ^^^^ 
gave  the  peasant  a  claim  to  relief  and  furnished  the  owner 
with  an  excuse  for  getting  rid  of  him,  there  were  in  three 
years  160,000  persons  evicted.^  In  one  year  in  a  single 
union,  15,000  persons  were  ejected."  "in  September, 
1847,  6000  notices  of  ejectment  were  served  in  a  single 
union."  The  introduction  of  a  new  system  of  cultivat- 
ing the  land,  the  substitution  of  pasturage  for  tillage,  the 
use  of  machinery,  the  way  men  voted  at  elections,  relig- 
ious differences,  racial  animosities,  personal  differences, 
spite,  revenge,  greed,  the  tenant's  improvements  have  all 
caused  evictions.  As  early  as  1845  ^  commission  ap- 
pointed bv  Peel  to  investigate  the  conditions  on  which 
land  in  Ireland  was  held  had  reported  that  Irprove- 
ments  in  Ireland  were  made  by  the  tenants;  tiac  the  land- 
lords had  appropriated  them  by  raising  the  rent;  and 
that  this  constituted  a  grievance  which  resulted  in 
crime.    * 


120 


England's  Progress 


At  this  time  aiui  again  in  1853  a  bill  was  introduced 
into  I'^arliarncrii  witfi  tiic  purpose  of  correcting  r:u:sc  evils 
but  both  were  thrown  oc;;  e\  icu;  !b  ■•_.>-  uf  Ij.)rus.  ■Xii.l 
in  1858  a  !iu>ti()n  ifitiahiuced  in  ibiiliament  icr  .;.ciij_xn- 
sating  the  evictcj,  tciKuit  hn*  his  interest  in  the  bind  was 
opposed  a  a    l^ill  for  transferring  the  prop- 

erty of  one  ^ci  o  persons  to  another  of  a  different 
class.'      Up    to    I  no    remedial   measure   had   been 

passed.  Gladstone  oidy  of  tbi  •  ^  lem  led  him  to  be- 
lieve tJiat  its  s(*!uii.jn  waib  lo  be  ocuuJ  m  Irish  custom 
rather  than  in  b  nirlhh  law.  In  the  only  part  of  Ireland 
that  \va>  at  .ill  rbrf  v  and  prosperous  there  obtained,  he 
noteib  tfic  aist  n  i  i\in^  in  undisputed  possession  a 
tenant  so  b)nLr  as  he  paid  his  rent,  and  also  of  compensat- 
ing him  for  per neinent  improvements  when  surrendering 
his  hob  ling,  whether  he  yielded  it  of  his  own  iree  will  or 
umJer  conuHiisinfi.  It  was  not  the  law,  no  written  con- 
tracts  or  agreements  were  used,  but  it  was  the  habit  to 
compensate  occupiers  both  for  ^'disturbance"  and  "im- 
pro\ernent>  '  The  nit  going  tenant  had  the  right  tu  sell 
to  the  in  eonofiii  t  n  t  his  '^occupancy"  and  thus  re- 
ceived pavnient  iivx  liis  improvements.  As  much  as  \ 
years  woiibj  be  thus  voiiil  at  liniei.  The  custom  was  not 
in  keepirur  witli  I  eo,;bsb  iaw,  for  it  recognized  dual- 
ownership  in  Ian  b  It  tienied  to  the  landlord  an  indi- 
vidual t  !  Xo  his  bind  and  recognized  the  tenant's  right 
in  the  firopertv.  Ibat  a<:  it  was  a  aisto.oi  that  was  fair  and 
one  that  the  Iri-b  ie=.wi.,  'e'beved  iio  Gladstone  deter- 
mined in  gi\T  it  bu:  force  of  law. 

The  Irisii  tenants  wanted  three  things — the  famous 
'  bhrte   V's'      {  i)     "Fixity  of  tenure";  that  is  to  say, 


undisturlKo. 

i'  t  ecaJoni 


I    o  iO. 


so  long  as  rent  was  paid.      (2) 
/ode      that  is,  the  tenant's  liberty  of  selling 


i 


Gtudsione^^  First  M:n\<f^v 


121 


t 


his  interest,  good-will  and  improvements.      (3)     1  air 

rents";  that  is,  rent  determined  not  by  independent  land- 
lords and  dependent  tenants,  but  by  an  irn|,oirtod  agent  or 

criminal  con- 

and  aim  of 

01   ownership 

.d  the  Board 

that 


ti   K,    \    *. 


trnunian      Underlying  the   disc^eoero:    aro 
duct  of  many,  no  doubt,  were  also  the    0 
finding  some  way  into  the  full  indepe  r 
of  their  holdings.     iMr.  Bright,  Pre    be 
of  Trade  in  Gladstone's  cabinet,  was  of  th 
only  peasant  proprietorship  in  land  would 
in  Ireland  and  urged  that  the  state  sriould         ■'  ' 
ant  in  purchasing  his  plot  of  ground  from  t 

In  consideration  of  these  desires  Glads      i. 
introduced  in  d      House  and  succeeded  i'   ^        o: 
into  law  without  radical  amendment  -     1 

Bill,  in  principle  it  acknowledged  for  the  fir^t  o 
**the  Irish  farmer  had  an  estate  in  his  holdings, 
the  "Ulster  custom  of  tenant  right,  and  similar 
in  other  parts  of  Ireland,  received  the  sanction  of  i 
it  provided  that  a  tenant  evicted  for  any  otfur  reason 
thoHi  non-payment  of  rent  should  receive  compensation 
both  for  disturbance  of  occupancy  and  for  the  value  of 
unexhausted  improvements;  that  a  scale  ui  compensa- 
tion for  disturbance,  "which  varied  from  two  to  seven 
}  irs*  rent,  according  to  the  value  of  the  holding"  was 
to  be  fixed  applicable  to  those  districts  in  which  custom 
did  not  already  fix  what  was  regarded  as  equitable:  that 
unless  the  contrary  were  proven  by  the  landlord,  im- 
provements would  be  regarded  in  law  as  made  by  the 
tenant;  that  nothin^  -bnuld  be  considered  as  an  iniprove- 


»»      5  JQJ. 


>> 


ment  to  be  con 
value  of  the  h 

rent   tioin    CO  pu.  '■ 
from  the  benefits  t 


unless  it  added  to  t 


le  rei 


-1 1 '  i 


:  that  no  tenant  paying  less  annunl 

\''  I  by  contract  exclude   himself 

**  and  that  a  landlord  could 


122 


England^s  Progress 


only  get  free  of  the  claims  of  the  statute  by  granting  a 

lease   tor  31    \cars.      1  lie   occupier  of  the  land  thus  be- 
came a  *ie)int  proprietor  with  the  lanvilord."     The  bill 


hich  provision  was  made 


had  alsn  |nirdiase  clauses  h\'  w 
tor  state   lijaro.   to  tenants  to  be   re|e,iid  in  small  install- 

.ee^,r-s   ^>'    vv..iv-,   tirrnii<4li   which  aid 
holdings  from  the  landlords. 


!  ,■ 


HI  t  r 


4.11  ! 


S 


h 


^lent^   over 
tiiev   FMigiit 

i  he  niea^ 
corita*ar\a    >*^ 
I  -^  7- »   aaeJ    1  a  7  I    th.o    I  'r 
for  {iresLfv  in^  :\\v  peae 


a;  hid  liuL  brinir  peace  in  Ireland.     Uii  the 

leuu'   ai^rarian  outrages  were  o.aanoang  in 


nent  had  to  pass  special  acts 

which  laws  conferred  enlar2:ed 

powers  an  ttie  {.xhree.  i!Kii!:!st ra.tes,  and  lord-hcuteaaarts, 
in  respeet  t     the   o  ial  and  imprisonment  of  all  sus- 

peetetl  |h  rs  n  Evictions  still  continued,  for  since  the* 
law  alhwveil  ejeetnienr  in  case  of  non-payment  o!*  !"(-t, 
the  hirulhu\l  eiauKI  still  lawfully  get  rid  of  an  :aha..  r-,^*- 
able  ten  ijit  !)y  simply  advancing  the  rent  beyond  las 
power  re)  pa\a      r\ii 


1   were  the  purchase  clauses  effective, 
a  ring  to  sell  to  their  tenants.     ''Only 
)  1877.'*^     But  non     I    .  less, 
rection.     5ome  of  the  prin- 
ended  appeared  in  several  later 
'    ae's  Land  Acts  of  188 1  and  1886  and 
Ut  01    1591.      iiifough  the  later  iegisla- 
t    '  lished  land  courts  to  determine  what 
:  i  the  tenant  in  undisturbed  posses- 

'  i\hb  juviuiar'  rent  was  paid,  and  jho- 
vided  that  thie  gowrnmcnt  might  advance  to  the  tenant 
wiio  woukl  Injv  in>  fioldings  two-thirds  of  the  purchase 
price,  arui  gwe  fiiiii  torty-iiiuc  \ears  to  pav  the  state  hack 
througli  annual  [Mwnmf^  e:e:  ',  h.  •  *  to  three- ;'  ^lmO^is  ,0'" 
e  iudieial  rent,      I        ■<        '■:''-        '  1891  wentfuwo'-^-r 

\c  state  might  advance  the  whoic 


the  landlords 
seven  sales 

the    act    I   - 

I  *  : 

K.  I  p  1  v.  >  ■  V.  *  ,:  .:-'  i  >  , 
Acts,    r,//,,    (7. 

in  SaHsbur\■'^ 
rion  ( dadst^'e'; 
was  a  fair  rer 
SI  cm   so  lonu 


th 

still  and  orovadcd  i:\di 


Gladstone's  Firs!  Minist^'v 


123 


of  the  purchase  price,  to  be  repaid  in  small  installments 
as  before  covering  a  peraod  of  fort\'onne  vears.  I  nJer 
these  acts  and  a  later  one  (1903)  thousands  of  tenants 
have  undertaken  to  buy  plots  of  land.  In  the  live  vears 
after  1891  there  were  some  35,000  purchasers:  '  truiii 
1903  to  1908  about  160,000.'*  ® 

One  of  the  most  important  measures  of  this  ministry 
was  the  Fdiicational  Act  of  1870,  in  chief  part  the  work 
ot  Mr.  horster,  vice  president  of  the  privy  council  It 
affirmed  two  principles:  (i)  that  the  State  \  u  ler  ab- 
ligatiuii  to  provide,  or  to  see  that  there  were  piv  ded 
by  other  agencies,  the  means  for  giving  at  least  an  ele- 
mentary education  to  all  its  children,  and  (2)  that  it 
had  the  power,  when  it  chose  to  use  it,  to  compel  par- 
ents to  send  their  children  to  school.  The  ^oue  was  to 
be  covered  with  good  schools  and  the  children  were  to  be 
gotten  into  them.  The  nation  had  been  giving  some 
assistance  to  special  schools  for  forty  years  In  1870 
it  was  making  grants  amounting  in  all  to  about  500,- 
000  pounds.  This  state  assistance  went  to  the  so-called 
^'voluntary*'  or  denominational  schools,  which  were  sup- 
ported mainly  by  gifts  and  tuition  fees,  and  which  were 
for  the  most  part  under  the  control  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. Among  those  receiving  state  crrants,  however, 
were  some  Wesleyan  and  some  Catholic  schools.  The 
schools  that  got  public  aid  were  inspected  by  an 
official  of  the  Educational  Department,  and  were, 
as  a  rule,  efficient  in  their  work,  as  was  true  too  with  a 
few  maintained  only  by  fees  and  private  gifts.  A  great 
many  of  the  schools  of  the  country,  however,  were  not 
worthy  of  the  name,  being  kept  by  persons  **who  spelled 
badly,  who  could  scarcely  write,  and  who  could  not  cipher 
at  all."  ®     In  some  the  **only  educational  apparatus  that 


1  Z  t|- 


England s  Progress 


.  C  C  I 


r'\      \  i  ■  '"\ 


Bibl 


e'l  v^  •  \ 


w  a  5 


1 1 


true    tlKit 


}. 


1    , 1 :  I 


1  Stick.''  And  not  only 

not    ha,\-c    afU'thmo:   like 


C-Tifuit^h    IT 


S.J.      ^ 


chndrcn   wxtc 


not   atteiii 


mr 


^       the-       NLh'-.'M.v, 


towns  ri<">t  iTion:  than  one 


c,U''t 


were 


!  (.' t„  C  !  \' 


...L  In  HKHiv  of  thi-  large 
■:o'.i  i^'-i  x\\v  chihlren  of  school 
ij  1869  out  of  the 
4.3  (  i«  '  if]  kill  ri  of  school  ^^  age  in  k  nedom,  1,300,- 
ooc)   went   to   sc}ir)ols  that  were   inhp.  w-iaM  and  efficient; 

:Jint  were  imin-a-.,  ^ " ..  a  :a''^-.:  Inefficient; 

..a      1  at  all.      i        g  r      il  illiteracy 

recop;nized  as  a   real  menace  to  tiie 


anc!  1  a:a^  h  j,'  h  h  :  t  = »  a 

(»f    the   peui)!i'    was 

state,  now  that  ttu^ 

Wfale   Mia,    V^^^v^- 


an 


trage  had  been  extended. 


the  conipuisorv  tt 
not  hehe\  v  wx  iiaa- 
stacle  in  t -naiaa  ^  > 
as  to  whaa,  reha^' 
statc-sup[H)rtei 
rcliiiion    tau^fi 


i~> ' 


1 


opponents  who  did  not  favor 

re  in  his  plan,  and  a  few  who  did 
education,  he  met  his  chief  ob- 
a  demands  of  various  parties 
p  u\^xi..'^iiun  was  to  be  given  in  the 
seiiuols.  There  were  some  who  wanted 
a  did  not  believe  tii at  it  counted  for 
rnucn  unless  it  nialuded  instruction  in  dogma  and  denomi- 
reationai  iloetnne:  there  were  some  who  would  have  in- 
struerlua  in  the  liilue.  !wt  would  exclude  the  catechisms; 
aoii  bO!  u  \\  fio  w  antt  1  tiie  education  to  be  purely  secular. 
'I'he  iienianil  i^t'  tiie  powerful  Birmingham  Education 
League,  '  which  was  supported  by  many  militant  Dissen- 
ters, wa>  that  ^'education  should  be  free,  compulsory  and 
seculairh'  'i  )enornjnational!sm  in  education'  drew  115 
chief  support  from  the  (."hurch  of  Enc:--^nd  partv.  Far- 
nest  and  !)no  ontinued  were  the  debates  on  the  religious 
question  Ihe  bill  was  introduced  February  17,  but  it 
was  |ulv  22  \\!o':  a*:  xvr  '  '  lorm  it  passed  its  third 
rcadiriij;  in  the  II  "  ■  s,  and  August  9th,  wfien 

having  passed  all  its  stape-,  it,  ivvcxved  the  royal  assent. 


Gladstone's  First  Ministry 


1 2 


Th 


e  nieasur 


as  e 


L  i  .   I.  1  I    ,   .  • 


acteii  was  a  comprorrnse. 


^ ' 


It  provided 
i  dts,  and  in 

o'.   L  o     •..':,!.(,  d  eie:tcd 
pou  nrs  t'  •  aid  nr  hull  I 

rat  e  s 


U  I 


school  pur 


wicient    schools 
ilenoniinationai 


i .  I  •,  .1 


>-)  f  ^ 


1 

til 


u}    t!a         :     .    -w  r->     o    •  '   w  : 
schools  ami  o.  ]rvx  local  ta 
poses.      In   districts  where   li     a    wa 
already  no  others     a    e  to  he  built, 
or  voluntary  schools  when  submittin 
being  aided   av   before   only  with    1 
grants  from  the  bUie  being  almost  doubled.     T! 
nominational  schools  were  denied  any  assistan  a 
local  rates;  but  they  were  recognized  as  a  par 
incorporated  into  the  State  educatiunai  system, 
support  was  drawn  from  vo'  noary  contributions 
fees,  and  state  grants      In  districts  where  more 
were  needed  than  voluntary  support  would  supp 
schools  were  built  to  be  supported  by  state  or  p.^ 
tary  rrrants,  by  tuition  fees  and  by  local  taxation, 
were  not  free  schools,  for  parents  had  to  pa} 
for  their  children's  education.     In  districts  an.i 
of  districts  where  the  parents  were  to    *       r 
tion  fees,  free  board  schools  were  a    he  eoaa 
to  school  attendance   "permissive  compulsion 
trusted  to  the  school  hoards:  that  is  to  say,  there  was 
local  option  in  t  tter,  the  board  of  each  district  hav- 

ing the  power  to  form  by-laws  compelling  attendance 
orncit  as  It  saw  lit.  I'he  ado|)tion  of  ''conscience  chiuscs'' 
and  time  tables  met  the  religious  difficulty.  The  denomi- 
national schools  were  allowed  to  continue  to  teach  their 


e 


I  >_/ 


V 


wd.  s 


I  s 


religious  tenetw  hut  tfiis  reliirious  instruct 
place  at  a  particular  lifwr.,  say  either  at  th 


an  should  take 


closing  of  school  da\ 
children  lo  receive  this 


opening  i/c 
V)  ere  i^i\'en  the  rigfit  of 


125  England's  Progress 

excusing  their  children  from  the  services.  In  the  board 
school.  P,u  catechism  or  other  distinctive  formulary 
sh.ouUl  be  taught,"  but  the  Bible  cn.ld  be  read  and  ex- 
piaincJ,  though  this  must  be  don,  t -.  ,t  a  particular 
hour  ,nd  iKuont.  were  permitted  if  they  chose  so  to  do, 

their  children  at  that  time.    The  Act  was  a 


\\  una 


■"AW 


f-, 


,n  advance.    The  general  effect  of  this  and  of 

.  (1880,  1891  and  1902)  of  which  it  was  t,ic 

bn.i,  !k.s  Inc.,  practically  an  entire  removal  of  illiteracy 

in  thr  niri   r,      While  in  1843  about  one-third  of  the  men 

ani  one-haii  of  the  women  were  illiterate,  in  1903  only 

onc-tfintv-UiM.!  .-i    tiic  wonirn,  and  one-fifteenth  ot  the 

.    .,     ;ih.   ,  ,t,        \   child  of  14  that  cannot  read, 
men    were   niiici.m.        ^    mim  ui      t  qo      t-u 

write  and  .i;  lur  is  scarcely  to  be  found.  In  1880  tne 
attendance  <.i  children  of  school  age  under  13  was  made 
universally  compulsory;  and  in  1891  public  elementary 
education  w  1        ,ide  free.  . 

.\  ra  ic  a!  re  ision  of  the  Act  of  1870  was  made  m 
1002  '-  l'>y  'i'c'  1870  law  the  amount  of  the  parhamen- 
tary  -ra.u.  uisen  to  a  school,  whether  a  denominational 
or  1  ioar,l  school,  was  proportioned  to  the  amount 
raised  m  or:  . :   ways.     If  the  board  school  raised  more 


by  loc 


cv  received  larger  state  grants:  and  if 
the  denumln  uu  u..  .choals,  which  were  not  allowed  aid 
from  tlu  local  rates,  could  raise  more  by  voluntary  sub- 
scriptKHi,  they  received  larger  state  grants.  At  the 
fir.t  :ind  for  ,ome  years  this  arrangement  worked  to  the 
advantage  of  the  denominational  schools,  most  of  which 
wrre  Church  o"  F  /  nl  institutions  well  supponcd  by 
friend.,  whus>  ^-^:_  de  it  possible  to  secure  larger 
prnpnrti.ms  of  the  state  grants  iiu.i.  board  schools  could 
get  by  increase  of  local  taxes.  But  in  the  long  run  the 
tables  were  turned,  for  in  time  more  could  be  raised  by 


Gladstone's  First  Ministry  127 

the  Increase  in  local  rates  than  by  voiuiitnry  gifts,  and 
ns  a  consequence  the  board  schools  got  more  of  the  state 
grants  than  the  denominational  schools,  i  r  Church- 
men,  numerous  and  powerful  in  their  political  e  of  the 
nation,  considered  it  unfair  that  their  school  e 

refused  aid  from  local  taxation,  and  by  continu:  ;       ,r. 
orous  agitation,  they  gained  for  themselves  in   1     .      .a 
additional  subsidy,  and  in  1902  a  considerable  ad\ 
in  the  law.     By  the  act  of  1902  the  school  boarc; 
abolished  and  their  powers  conferred  on  the  county  and 
town  councils,   the   regular  local  government  organiza- 
tions.   The  denominational  as  well  as  the  board  schools 
were  to  be  supported  by  the  local  taxes,  as  well    i.  by 
the  state  grants.    The  control  and  direction  of  the  schools 
were  placed  by  the  local  government  councils,   in  the 
hands  of  committees;  for  the  board  schools,  a  commit- 
tee, composed  of  members  of  the  county  or  borough  coun- 
cil and  for  the  denominational  school,  a  committee  of  six, 
two  of  whom  were  representatives  of  the  county  or  bor- 
ough council,  and  four  of  whom  were  representatives  of 
the  denomination.     Since  this  arrangement  for  the  de- 
nominational school  gave  the  control  of  money  raised 
from  the  pubhc  by  local  rates  for  school  purposes  to  a 
committee,  two-thirds  of  whose  members  were  usually 
churchmen  of  a  particular  denomination,  and  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases  represented  the  Church  of  England, 
there  arose  at  once  and  there  has  remained  intense  hos- 
tihty  to  the  measure  from  the  secularists  and  Non-Con- 
formists of  the  nation. 

In  187 1  Oxford  and  Cambridge  T/niversities  were 
emancipated  from  the  cramping  influence  of  sectarian- 
ism by  the  passage  of  a  bill  relieving  their  members  of 
all  religious  tests.    Gladstone  had  hitherto  been  opposed 


1  o  H 


Englanfis  Progress 


to  repealing  the  law  that  allowed  only  churchmen  the 
right  of  sitting  in  convocation  or  holding  a  college  fel- 
lowship :  but  ii 
formists  after  the 


bi]l   of 


ing   ttic    '^\  ''i^  '    •'•  ^i     '   ■    ' 
^'priiK-spli    tluit    Cviu  at 
tarianb"    ar>:   ^tvitij.   ti.a 
restTiCticM!S  at  the   \    ns- 
position  in   i  S7  i 
measure   tfie 
vleled   that    .leurCv-^ 
shoiihi  be   w'pt  !i   t 
rehgious  formuhirv 
exception  of  tJu:  reoi 
must  be  all   nieiiou/: 
removed   all    !'eej   • 


iiTowing  pressure  of  the  non-con- 
tment  of  the  Educational  Act  not- 

:        .1    among  the   ;"e^ede   o\    the 
bl  be  nai     n  1   and  unsec- 
Y  wanted  tlu    religious 
^^^^:vi'b.:■.   r.;:-n\-ed,  he  changed  his 
10  :        a  government 

[TKO  \a;ar.  b'h'.:  br.e  enacted  pro- 
',  [  ;  ;•,  •/■•'  :  -  ;  or  cobiege  offices 
""    ,.      ■    ^        .'  '    eription  to  no 

)t  I  a; ill  jciiig  Jea.au.a.:L  With  the 
ii ,  nciu  that  the  Theological  Facultv 
the  state  established  Church,  it 
te>  ^  fur  scholars,  fellows,  tutors 
and  professors,  v.,  leneul  fellowships  were  sail  retained; 
some  nt  the  I  leads  of  Houses  were  still  required  to  be 
elergvnien:  anil  the  Church  of  England  was  formally 
rect)]rii  /ed   o.  die  official  religion  of  the  Universities  and 


Colie 


giS 


Ariotiier  beneficial  reform  of  Gladstone's  first  minis- 

trv  was  the  reorgarit/aiinn  of  the  army  etiecteJ  m  1H71 


arul    iH7i,  U)x  work  m  tlie  main  of  Mr.   Cardweli,  the 
War   Sccretarv.     The   Franco-Prussian    Wb.:    '  npressed 

the  Sccrctarv  widi  tiie  necessity  ui  Englaiidd  being  bet- 


ter  prep  arte 


I 


■i^eiicies. 


The  weaknesses  in  the 
riubtary  system  were  (i)  want  of  reserves,  there  not 
being  enough  soldiers  to  provide  a  home  army  of  de- 
fence  and  also  an  army  for  service  abroad  in  distant  fron- 
tiers of  the  I briiire  where  small  wars  were  of  frequent 
occurrence,  ( 2  J  aided  command,  the  national  force  or 
militia  and  volunteers  being  not  under  the  jurisdiction  of 


Gladstone' s  First  Mtnisfrv 


189 


the  Secretary  of  War  and  Commander-in-Chief,  but  raider 

the  command  of  the  Lord  Ideutenants  eo'  the  counties, 
(3}  tht!  legalized  purchase  of  promotion  in  rank,  com- 
missidns  in  the  army  being  bought  and  sold  at  regula- 
tion prices  to  the  advancement  of  the  rich  and  to  the 
d(a:-f>icnt  of  the  service,  ddds  purchase  system  through 
which  officers  bought  advane  paying  so  much 

to  seniors  who  would  retire  or  get  a  \    ... action,  had  been 
established   by    royal    warrant    generations   before    and 
was  often  defended  on  the  ground  of  maintaining  in  the 
army  ''the  high  social  standing  of  the  officers  and  the 
due  influence  of  wealthb      But  such  a  defense  was  an  ex^ 
cuse   rarber  than,  a   reason;  and  since  the  system   was 
against  merit,  leaving  the  best  soldiers  if  poor  in  the 
lowest  positions  to  the  inefficiency  of  the  armv,  the  Sec- 
retary prepared  to  abolish  it.    He  calculated  that  the  na- 
tion would  have  to  pay  out  about  7,000,000  pounds  in 
compensation  to  officers  for  their  vested  interests»    :^ inre 
the  officers  had  bought  their  commissions  and  could  sell 
them  at  certain  values,  the  offices  being  regarded  as  so 
much  private  property,  the  government  with  IbDeralitv 
decided  fullv  ti  reimbimsr  m    officers  for  tiieir  interests, 
though  the  nation  was  thus  buying  from  them  a  control 
of  its  own  army  officers.     When  Mr.  CardwelFs  meas- 
ure, having  received  the  approval  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons after  considerable  opposition  fr  friends  of 
army  officers,  was  about  blocked  in  th      .  f  Lords, 
the  Prime  Minister,  supported  by  his  C  idvised 
the  Queen  to  abolish  the  purchase  systcfo  g  a 
new  royal  warrant  which  would  displace  the           .le  that 
established  and  regulated  the  practice.     The            ^^  ^  w 
the  wisdom  of  the  step  and  issued  the  warrant:  and  since 
the  Lords  desired  the  army  officers  to  get  their  full  com- 


130 


England* s  Progress 


pensation  which  would  not  happen  unless  the  bill  be- 
came I:n\\  they  now  iM'rniiptlv  but  reliictantlv  pn!--.'=: 


he 


measure   also. 


Mr 


trc 


x,   X  I   v.. 


'  'I  r  t  n  ^ '       f  r 


,    I  :irvi 
:ol^!  vvv 


1 1 

V\  t."  i  1 


aiithorit\-  oi   rhi    I  » •:  '   1 


na.iit'^  of  coiinties^  2''-.^ 


ing  the  h)ca]  ■'    '  > -heiteers,  yeomanry  with  thr  ■^.r'-- 

lar  ff)r vCn  uruJr  the  single  control  of  the  Commander-in- 
Chief  and  War  Office.  In  his  uriraiiization  oi  a  reserve 
force,  and  introJiiCti^n  o\  sh,ortrr  ser\ice  for  recruits 
appeal  >  the  foundation  oi  iJie  mode    1  1  army.  The 

recruits  were  to  enlisi  not  for  twenty  \a,a.irs  as  before,  but 
for  twelve    inlv,      se\cfi   in  the  standing  force  with  the 


colors, 


.ind    t]\e    \ 


\    :  t 


tile   reserve. 


:.C 


regular  army 

wouhj  alwav  s  he  coiriposed  then  of  younger  men;  it  would 
ser\*e  as  a  nnhtarrv  *  '-ool;  and  the  rescn^e  would 

be  an  experienced  force  of  some  40,000  or  more  at  hand 
to  swell  the  arinv's  strength  when  called  on  in  case  of 
emergency  I'^'ic  country  was  divided  into  dlstricts,^^ 
each  o!   whic!i  liave  its  battalion  of  the  line,  two 

militia  reuinients  and  local  volunteers  under  the  same 
officer,  the  laeutewinr  Colonel.  With  the  intention  of 
having  half  the  annx- 
system  ot  Iniked  had 
of  tiie  lim:  into  two  battalions,  one  to  be  ke|  i  at  home, 
while  the  other  was  to  be  kept  abroad,  but  both  men  and 
officers  wen  ro  be  interchangeable.  Valuable  improve- 
ments were  also  made  m  the  commissariat  department, 
in  tran:]H  Id  i)rovisions,  and  in  regulations  concerning 
tjuahhcations   tur  obtaining  commissions. 

Other  fruits  of  the  reform  activity  of  this  ministry 
were  i  1  )  the  opening  of  the  departments  of  the  civil 
serci.e  to  public  competition;  (2)  the  repeal  of  the  Eccle- 
siast!  at    I  it  lis  Act  of  185  I  that  forbade  bishops  of  the 


Iways  at  home  he  established  the 
)ns.     iHe  divided  each  regiment 


Gladstone's  First   Ministry 


131 


Roman   Catholic   Church   assuming  territorial   titles  in 
England;    (3)    the  Trades-Union  Act,  which  legalized 
unions  and  defined  their  rights  and  limitations;  (4)  the 
Ballot  Act,  \\]\\q\\  introduced  secret  voting,  and  thus  les- 
sened intimidation  and  bribery;  (5)  the  Judicature    let, 
which    brought    the    several    superior    Courts,    siicli    as 
Court  of  Common  Law  and  of  Equity,  Court  of  Admi- 
ralty, Court  of  Bankruptcy,  and  Probate  and  Divorce 
Court,  together  to  form  one  Supreme  Court  of  Judica- 
ture, Itself  to  be  divided  into   1  TTIgh  Court  of  Justice 
and  a  Court  of  Appeal,  a  centrahzation  that  rendered 
judicial  actions  and  procedure  cheaper,  simpler  and  more 
equitable;    (6)    the  Licensing  Bill,  which  regulated  the 
hours  for  the  closing  of  public-houses,  or  gin  shops,  made 
provisions  against  the  sale  of  adulterated  products  and 
organized  town  and  country  licensing  agencies;  (7)  the 
establishment  of  four  holidays  in  the  year,  called  bank- 
holidays,  Easter  Monday,  Whit  Monday,  the  day  after 
Christmas  called  Boxing  Day,  and  the  First  Monday  in 
August;  (8)  a  Miners'  Regulation  Act,  which  gave  pro- 
tection  to  men  underground  by  requiring  the  certified 
competency  of  managers;   (9)   the  introduction  of  half- 
penny post  cards  and  of  cheaper  postal  rates  for  news- 
papers;   (10)    retrenchment  in  army  and  navy  expendi- 
tures; (11)  the  creation  of  a  permanent  Raihvav  Com- 
mission, composed  of  three  members  nominated  by  the 
Crown   to   **decide   legal   disputes  between  the  railway 
companies  and  private  traders.'' 

Many  ministerial  bills  were  lost  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  ministry,  a  notable  one  among  them  being  the 
Irish  1  liverslty  Bill  of  1873.  Gladstone  proposed  to 
estabi.  i)  a  great  University  which  should  incorporate 
in  one  body  several  educational  institutions,  among  them 


132 


En  y  Ian  if  s  Progress 


the  Protestant  cstabiidhmcnt  Trinity  College,  the  Roman 
Catholic  University,  and  the  unsectarian  colleges  at  ^  1- 

fast  cirid  C(jrk,  The  Universitv  was  to  be  a  tea  i 
as  well  as  an  examining  body,  an  undenominational  in- 
stitution  wluit    Protestant  and  Catholic  were  to  labor 

ro£yether  in  harTii*)ny.    There  were  to  be  no  religious  tests 

^vharcicr  t'-r  or-'r-sors  or  students  in  the  Universitv  and 
alJ  honors  a     1     ti  niuments  were  to  be  thrown  opt  i    to 

competitors  of  c\aoo  creed.     The  University  was  to  be 

iincler  the  ioninM  tjt  a  body  of  twcntv-ciirht  members  ap- 
pointed at  hist  i)v  Parliament  but  later  through  a  system 
tfiat  miiiht  cviaituaiiy  ha\c  Kal  to  Catholic  control.  There 
was  to  be  in  the  University  neither  a  chair  of  theology  nor 
of  ipa>ral  philosophy,  nor  of  modern  history.  These 
subjeets  were  tu  Ih:  tauiaiu  only  in  the  incorporated  col- 
leges and  a  professnr  nr  instructor  was  liable  to  be  sus- 
pende  1  nr  le|  sed  if  in  speech  or  in  writing  he  willfully 
otfendeii  the  rehi^iruis  convictions  of  his  pupils  or  other 
meriibers  to''  tiu;  I  nivcrsity.  These  foolish  **gagginp: 
clauses"  wen-  iiro-rasinu;  m  many  of  the  Liberals  as 
well  as  Cunservatn-er^:  the  Roman  Catholics  were  not 
enthusiastic  over  "undenommational  education";  and  the 
Irish  Frcshvtcrians  were  opposed  to  the  whole  project. 
The  bill  war.  rejectc  h  though  by  a  close  vote,  287  to  284. 
(dadbtiHu;  chose  to 
and    tiicrefnn; 

But  i.iisratda  lice  L oroerx  :0 i\a'  leader,  was  unwilling  to 
trv  to  ieavi  in  a  1  hni^^c  of  I  nirinu)ns  having;  Si>  i^reat  a  ma- 
lontv  ol  Icoerso^^  ^  i  n;-iUe^,„  i..^  .•..,.,.,-.  '/■■'"■■ 
Un>r  nn  rh^'  r"of>.i  o, ,,,  ^,'-'  ,,'  ;,.;,,■  e;e-,M  fh  ;:;4  Parliament  for 
a  new  genera!  election,  aiwi  ah>o  ri-htly  divinin-  o.,o  die 
country   was   tire.;  eo    '^':e    Liberal  governme-:    ,ml   that 


,  1    t  n  I  s 


ah 


'  I  -    '  r  ■  ! 


a  vital  measure 
tn   the  Queen. 


1  I  t'  t'  i  o^       I  i'  U 1  '  "^  r  ''" 


would  but  bring  it  into  further 


Glads$oue*s  First  Ministry 


133 


discredit,  he  unconditionally  refused  to  take  office  just 
then  and  Gladstone  was  compelled  to  continue  at  his 
post. 

The  government  was  fast  waning  in  popularity.    Its 
handling  of   foreign  affairs  had  been   much   criticized. 

\\  rule  tile  Ilritish  public  were  pleased  with  the  o-overn- 
ment's    observini^    a    strict   neutrality    in    regard   to    the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  they  did  not  like  at  all  the  fact  that 
at   the  close   the   Russian  government  was  able   coolly 
to  defy  England  by  disavowing  the  Black  Sea  clauses  of 
the  treaty  of  Paris,  made  1856  at  the  close  of  Ue  Cri- 
mean War.    By  this  treaty,  whose  guarantors  were  Eng- 
land and   France,   Russia   was   forbidden  to   have  war 
vessels  in  the  Euxine;  but  now  that  France  was  conquered 
and  overrun  by  the  Germans,  and  the  Emperor  Napoleon 
III  overthrown,  Russia  declared  her  intention  to  disre- 
gard the  engagement  and  build  a  war-fleet  in  these  waters. 
I  ie   affront  was   humiliating  to  English  pride,   but   as 
hado-d  stood  alone  and  could  ill  afford  to  make  it  a 
reason  for  going  to  war  nothing  could  be  done  about  it. 
Nor  was  the  nation  pleased  with  the  results  of  the  gov- 
ernment's arbitration  experiences.     The  decisions  of  the 
arbitrating  boards  in  two  disputes  with  America  were 
both  unfavorable  10  England.     One  dispute  was  about 
the  possession  of  San  Juan  Island,  near  the  coast  of 
British  Columbia.     The  United  States  got  the  island. 
The  other  controversy  was  concerning  the  claims  made 
by  the  United  States  for  compensation  for  damage  done 
Federal  interests  and  trade   by   confederate  privateers 
during  the  Civil  War.    The  arbitrators  in  1872  ordered 
JLngland  o»  pay  the  United  States  more  than  3,000,000 
pounds-     In  having  these  controversies  judicially  settled 
Gladstone  won  eventually  a  deserved  and  enduring  title  to 


134 


England's  Progress 


Wf irld  fame,  hut  at  trie  time  the  Prime  Minister  lost  popu- 
larity in  Englan  1  British  public  opinion  considered  the 
awai  Jn  unfair  and  liked  the  government  less  on  account 
of  thiH!.  Ihr  public  welcomed  too  a  rest  from  the  cease- 
less avil\itv  i)\  t!  goveninuiit  in  domestic  legislation. 
Whilt  I):  i  i  \  aignment  of  the  Liberal  Ministry, 
wlufi  flu  ifish  [University  was  under  discussion  in  1873, 
\\a>  hittcia  uiiiair  and  exaggerated,  it  did  reflect  the  truth 
lat  Gladstone's  reforming  energy  had  disquieted  busi- 
ness and  ii i^tur!)C(l  the  conservative  feeling  of  English- 
men Vou  have  had  four  years  of  it,"  he  said,  *'you  have 
despoiled  churches,  you  have  threatened  every  corpora- 
tion and  ciulouirKiit  m  the  country,  you  have  examined 
into  e\crvhiHly's  affairs,  you  have  criticised  every  pro- 
fessicMi.  and  \  cxcd  every  trade,  no  one  is  certain  of  his 
prte^ii  rt'v.  no  one  knows  what  duties  he  may  have  lu  pci- 


M 


14 


inn       that  his  ministry  was  discredited,  Gladstone 

decided  t     s     k  si![  port  in  a  new  appeal  to  the  people,  and 

uri  :  i^cd  everybody  by  suddenly  announcing  in  January, 

I  a  74,    a   dissolution   of  Parliament.     He   promised  the 

|)coplc  tint  I  It  icLurned  to  power  he  would  abolish  the 
income  rtx,  and  reorganize  more  equitably  local  taxation. 
His  appeal  liid  it  win  the  electorate.  The  masses  were 
little  moved  hv  i  pledge  to  lower  an  income  tax,  and  sev- 
eral intluentnd  d asses  of  voters  fought  him.  Those 
Churcli  lien  who  disfavored  his  disestablishment  of  the 
Irish  ChurJi,  tini.v  D^v-^cnters  who  did  not  like  the  ad- 
\  antagc  gi\n,:n  the  Angiwan  Church  In  tiic  Education  Act, 
the  nnlit  iry  groia  to  his  army  reform,  the  self- 

asscrtl\e  1  r^  I      wanted  England  to  count  for 


» t ) 


'A 


t     ( I  \ 


steady-going  business  men  and 
hose  profits  and  mterests 


Gladstone's  First  Ministry 


13s 


had  been  disturbed  by  recent  legislation,  and  the  owners 
of  the  saloons  and  gin-shops  whose  trade  had  been  in- 
terfered with,  all  threw  their  votes  against  the  Liberals. 
The  Conservatives  won  a  splendid  victory,  gaining  a  ma- 
jority of  5u  m  rlie  1  luse  of  Commons.  According  to 
Gladstone,  the  defeat  was  due  to  the  opposition  of  the 
saloon-keepers  and  brewers,  *'to  a  torrent  of  gin  and 
beer'';  according  to  Disraeli  "to  incessant  and  harassing 
legislation,''  too  much  "meddling  interference."  ^^ 

REFERENCES 

1.  Bright:  Growth  of  Democracy  1 837-1 880,  p.  446. 

2.  McCarthy:  Epoch  of  Reform,  p.  99. 

3.  Walpole:  History  of  England,  Vol.  5,  p.  207. 

4.  H.  Paul:  History  of  Modern  England,  Vol.  3,  p.  204. 

5.  H.  Paul:  History  of  Modern  England,  Vol.  3,  p.  206. 

6.  H.  Paul:  History  of  Modern  England,  Vol.  3,  p.  207. 

7.  Hazen:  Europe  Since  181 5,  p.  477. 

8.  Hazen:  Europe  Since  1815,  p.  506. 

9.  H.  Paul:  History  of  Modem  England,  Vol.  3,  p.  212. 

10.  Hazen:  Europe  Since  1815,  p.  478-479. 

11.  Low  and  Sanders:  Political  History  of  England,  p.  246. 

12.  Hazen:  Europe  Since  181 5,  513-514. 

13.  Bright:  Growth  of  Democracy  1 837-1 880,  p.  471. 

14.  Bright:  Growth  of  Democracy  1 837-1 880,  p.  495. 

15.  Low  and  Sanders:  Hunt  &  Poole  Political  History  of  Eng- 

land, Vol.   12,  p.  254. 


CHAPTER  X 

[)isk;\r:i..rs  secoxd  misi^T'ry 

lltc  C.)nser\-;itives  were  in  power  for  six  years  (1874^ 
1880 j.  J)  aili  announced  as  the  principles  of  the 
party's  1   ilc)  :   (i)   the  maintenance  of  our  institutions, 

(2  )  the  |)reservntion  of  tlu  empire,  and  (3)  the  improve- 
ment of  rfic  vondiii^ni  01  the  people.  In  keepinfi  with 
the  thirJ  principle,  the  ministry  early  passed  a  fe 

enitc  measures  of  benefit  to  farmers  and  artisans,      iiiv) 
Sit     !  alio  no   '    Dwelling   Bill,   which    aimed   to 
ur  houses  for  the  workmen  of  cities;  a  Labor 

Law-  Aniefidiih  lO,  \i  iiich  declared  that  **a  combination  in 

tio:uk:onJispLita.   t  .   tf.)   an   aet   not    oi   itself  punishable   as 

a  lO'ioo/'  s!ii)!i'J  !]  I  longer  be  liable  to  punishment  as  a 

eoiis[  naev       ao  i  uiiicti  lessened  the  number  of  breaches 

Of    eootiaiet    "Oi     '-e   part   of   1   workman   that   could   be 


cfiaeted 


]"'■ 


H 


U  i 


.  *>.  a 


..f  1.1 


\\iiieh  wais  a 
measures;  a 
111  cxefoinges 
societies  Bill 
associations  in 


puniNheJ    eriio 

sort     Ml'     ;>m;     ...i.^: 

lAiiil  loll  that  simplified  the  p--- - 
aeJ  •  o"  reiestration  of  titles;  the 
that  provided  for  supervision  of 
order  to  secure  better  the  tuiivls  efitrusted  to  them  by  the 
thrifty  poor;  and  an  Agricultural  Holdings  Bill,  by  which 
farmers  might  at  the  end  of  a  tenancy  get  some  return 
for  eapiia]  e\[Hiided  on  improvements  that  were  nut  yet 
ev^iausteJ       Radical  reforms  t   booed  by  this  min- 

istryj    their   inutto  "rest  in         0     tic  legislation"   being 

136 


Disraeli's  Second  Ministry,   1874-1880        137 


pretty  srenerally  observed.     But  in  foreign  affairs  the 
government  was  decidedly  active. 

In  1875  the  Prime  Minister  suddenly  surprised  Eng- 
land  with  the  wonderful  news  that  the  government  had 
pnrrhn scd  from  the  Khedive  of  Lgypt  177,000  shares — 
nearly  half  control — of  the  ^ocz  Canal  for  the  sum  of 
4,000,000  pounds.  The  shares  were  about  to  be  taken 
bv  a  body  of  Frenchmen,  when  Disraeli  intervened. 
lis  offer  by  telegraph  of  millions  of  ready  cash  was 
^  accepted  by   the    financially   distressed   Khedive. 

For         dand,  the  leading  naval  and  maritime  power  of 
the  w  ad  the  governor  of  India,  the  purchase  was 

a   n  a  t   r^stroke   of  imperial  policy.     The  loud  praises 
the  Premier  got  from  the  press  and  people  were  deserved. 

A  prominent  feature  of  Disraeli's  policy  was  the  mag- 
nification of  England's  position  in  Asia.  He  favored  the 
plan  of  having  the  Prince  ui  W  ales  make  a  tour  through 
India.  A  considerable  sum  of  money  having  been  granted 
for  the  purpose,  the  visit  was  paid  in  the  fall  of  1875. 
1  he  royal  progress  throughout  the  country  was  conducted 
on  a  grand  scale.  Costly,  pompous,  magnificent,  it  aimed 
at  impressing  the  princes  and  inhabitants  of  the  prov- 
inces with  the  strength  and  prestige  of  Great  Britain, 
and  also  in  making  clear  to  European  powers  that  Eng- 
land highly  valued  this  Asiatic  continent.  It  was  during 
the  Prince's  visit  when  gratifying  accounts  of  his  recep- 
tion filled  the  public  mind,  that  Disraeli,  in  1876,  intro- 
duced his  Royal  Titles  Bill,  which  would  add  to  the 
Queen's  title  the  high-sounding  phrase  "Empress  of 
India."  There  were  manv  who  objected  to  the  proposal- 
some  ridicuhng  it  as  cheap,  barbaric  trumpery;  others 
declaring  that  the  particular  word  "Empress"  was  ex- 
tremely distasteful  to  Englishmen.     But  Disraeli  argued 


X38 


England^s  Progrrss 


i  U  ti  I,       l  '  1   V.  i.  l^  V  i  V  ll  i       t 


piv.....Mt  .1   such  a  change  was  set  in  the  act  of 
I'movi  with  Ireland;  that  in  his   luA^jmvm  there  was  ne- 

ces^iU'    for   some   external   mark   ni    n:r    ;, t^-"  .•■^    ot    the 


lir 


C) 


I      as  supreme   over  in  i   eign  prmces 

rfuit   this  iiccessitv  had  exi^tod  ever  since  the 
I  liuli a  was  transferred  from  the  East  India 


n  ^' 


C  o n ' I'M  n "^ 
show  die 

1  ■}  r-^  ,  <       '  .    '       ";  '  ^  -I   ■■  : 

the   <^Juc;;n   w  :,' 
in  name  :  anh 


?■ !  r  i  t ' 


5      >, 


/       / 


1  t 


i  ii4n;tv  was 


to  the  Crown  in  1858;  that  the  new  title  would 

inariiniuus  determination  of  the  people  of  Eng- 

:  i      connection  with  the  Indian  Empire:  that 

w  press  in  India  in  fact  and  should  be  so 

le  Queen  herself  favored  the  change 

':'s  carried,  and  on  New  1  wsa  '-  Day, 

M  ■  B  )mbay  the  new 

V    i  idl)  proclaimed. 


I    lie    O  i  I  I 

Dcih 


Tiu;     KovaJ      I  !th"s 


v\  r»n  for  the  Prime  Minister 
the  warm  1  riendship  of  his  Sovereign.  At  the  close  of  his 
liisi  niiiiibii)  \  ictoria  had  offered  to  raise  Disraeli  to 
the  peerage.  I  honor  he  then  declined  for  himself, 
but  accepted  hi  vife  on  whom  was  conferred  the  title 

of  '  \  i5cuuiucb5  li  i.unsfield.''  In  August,  1878.  how- 
ever he  accepteJ  the  honor  and  was  created  *  Larl  of 
Beaconsfield,"  passing  then  from  the  House  of  Commons, 
m  which  he  had  been  a  prominent  figure  for  about  40 
years,  mto  the  i  louse  of  Lords,  remaining  still  however 
at  the  head  of  the  government. 

I  his  ia>!  speech  in  the  Commons  sounded  the  impc- 
rialisne  n  >te  clear  and  strong.  Some  fearful  revelations 
had  lust  luen  made  of  the  brutal  methods  of  warfare 
cMiploycJ  by  tile  Turks  against  the  Bulgarian  Christians 
w  !o  were  revolting  against  Uttoman  misrule.  Volun- 
fctr    Inoiands   and   Circassian   irregulars   of  bar    n    u^ 


nat     e  na  i  been  turned  loose  to  wreak  their  s; 

Oil  deieiibeiess  villages.     I'welve  thousand  pe 


^  *  I  i  D 


Disraeli's  Second  Ministry,   1874-1880       139 

been  killed  in  one  district;  near  a  hundred  Christian  girls 
had  been  seized  uul  carried  off  by  the  vicious  Turks; 
rapes,  wholesale  massacres,  and  every  heinous  crime 
appeared  in  the  ^'Bulgarian  Atrocities.''  The  Conserva- 
tive government  was  fiercely  criticized  by  the  Liberals, 
because  the  ministry  was  so  careful  to  maintain  a  friendly 
attitude  toward  Turkey,  and  had  at  first  dismissed  as 
idle  rumors  and  exaggerations  the  Bulgarian  reports. 
*'But,"  answered  D-  aeli,  "I  am  sure  that  as  long  as 
England  is  ruled  by  English  parties  who  understand  the 
principles  on  which  our  Empire  is  founded,  our  influence 
in  that  part  of  the  world  can  never  be  looked  upon  with 
indifference.''  .  .  .  *Those  who  sii[  pose  that  F  gland 
would  ever  uphold  or  at  this  moment  particularly  is 
upholding  Turkey  from  blmd  superstition,  and  from  a 
want  of  sympathy  with  the  highest  aspirations  of  hu- 
manity, are  deceived.  What  our  duty  is  at  this  critical 
moment  is  to  maintain  the  Empire  of  England.  Nor 
will  we  ever  agree  to  any  step,  though  it  may  obtain  for 
a  moment  comparative  quiet  and  a  false  prosperity,  that 
hazards  the  existence  of  that  Empire."  ^ 

D'Israeli  believed  that  the  safety  of  the  Empire  was 
threatened  in  the  East  by  Russia's  advance  on  Turkey. 
The  latter  country  was  bankrupt.  It  had  experienced 
several  palace  revolutions,  two  sultans  being  deposed 
one  after  another,  one  of  them  murdered;  and  it  had 
been  forced  to  fight  insurrections  in  several  of  its  prov- 
inces, in  Bosnia,  1 1  rzegovina,  Montenegro  and  Servia. 
The  Russians  were  ready  to  help  the  Greek  Christians, 
their  brethren,  in  winning  deliverance  from  the  heavy 
hand  of  the  infidel  Turk.  Emissaries  from  Russia  had 
taken  part  in  the  Bosnian  revolt  and  many  thousands  of 
Russian   volunteers   under   the   command  of   a   Russian 


140 


England's  Progress 


gene  nil  had  eonie  to  tlic  aid  of  the  Servians.  This  inter- 
ference ifi  'f\irkish  aftairs  was  not  to  the  liking  of  Eng- 
land,    llie  treat\-  ot   Paris  made  in    1856  at  the  end  of 

the  Crimean  War  w^as  rH)inted  to  wherein  tlie  Powers  had 
proniisfd  not  to  ^Intervene  in  the  internal  ariairs  ot 
Turkey."      Init  Russia  would  have  it  remei  :   that 

this  treaty  Inid  been  made  in  view  of  t  olemn 

vnw  to  "imp'roie  tlie  lot  ot  Ins  lliinstian  suDjects'*  and 
that    tlie    yn-r^uu-c    na,d    not    hcvn    m    the    least   observed. 

Russia    trit   ttoi'L   treat\'    en'*   m)   treatia    tiu;   eause  of   hu- 


nuinitv   ucrnanuL'K 


i  restraimeLt  tlia  Inirbaruus  tyranny  oi 
till  I  urk.  Alter  scvend  \  ain  attempts  by  the  diplomats 
tinouuli  enrrespondence  and  exchange  of  notes  to  bring 
the  eoni'iaiid  aeiiun  of  European  powers  to  bear  in 
et!eetin}4  rehnaie>  in  'Tvt^^:y  Russia  announced  her  in- 
tention of  un  krtaking  tfu  work  single-handed,  and  on 
A[)rii  24,  1577,  declared  war  on  i  urkcy.  The  English 
ni  ostrv  was  disposed  to  interpret  the  move  ns  inspired 
m  :  V  a  desire  for  Constantinople  than  by  a  love  of 
I  hrist  nt)  Russia's  army  took  Kars,  passed  through 
Rounejnia,  erossed  the  Danube,  was  checked  at  Ph:\-na 
hi  a  lew  months,  then  burst  over  the  Balkan  mountains 
m  the  depth  of  winter,  swept  across  the  plains  of  Ru- 
mcha.  captured  Adrianoplc  January  20,  pressed  on 
to  tfie  ecrv  !  ard,  and  forced  peace  terms  March  3, 
isys.  w  t  1  1  utterly  discomfited  foes  at  San  Stefano 

withni    a    i"cw   l^oux^cs   ui    the   capital   itself.      The  peace 

I  ;  t  -^ ;  -   V      i    '  ■•  ■  I   :   ,  I  ■..  •■  i      :  .  ■  .    . 

( 1 )  A  war  indemnity  to  Russia  of  12,000,000  pounds. 

(2)  Accession  to  Russia  of  certain  places  iri  Asia,  Kars, 
Batoum,   Ardahan,   Bavazid. 

(3)  1  he  independent  ^t  as  states  of  Servia,  Monte- 

ne^an)  and  Roumatiia. 


DisraeWs  Second  Ministry,  1874-1880       141 


(4)    Idle  enlargement  of  Bulgaria,  whieh  was 


he  an 

^   to   the   buhan. 


J  he  enlargement  ol  Uulgana,  wiiieh  was 
autonomous  state,  though  tributary  to  the 
and  which  was  to  reach  np:ht  down  to  tiie  Aegean 
Sea,  thus  nncludii  e  the  better  part  of  European 
Turkey  between  01  and  Servia.  **Fifty  thou- 
sand troops  would  occupy  it  by  way  of  precaution 
for  two  years.**  ^ 

These  Russian  advanees  were  very  unwelcome  to  Eng- 
land. The  predominance  of  the  Muscovite  in  Turkey 
was  deemed  a  threat  to  her  control  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  to  her  interests  ni  h  i^vpt  ami  in  India.  The  enlarge- 
ment of  Bulgaria  was  especially  objected  to  since  it  was 
belie\  ed  that  Russia  intended  finding  through  the  new 
state  at  some  future  day  an  outlet  to  the  Aegean  Sea. 
1  !  aland's  Prime  Minister  made  up  his  mind  to  curb 
K  ^^  even  if  the  effort  necessitated  war.  In  January, 
iev,d,  the  government  asked  for  a  supplementary  grant 
of  6,000,000  pounds  for  army  audi  n:i\  \  purposes,  which 
was  after  some  debate  voted.  In  the  same  month  the 
British  fleet  was  ordered  to  the  Dardanelles,  and  three 
weeks  hiter  tii  Constantinople.  The  Mediterranean  fleet 
was  strengthened  by  additional  ships  and  naval  and  mili- 
tary preparations  were  pressed  ahead  in  dock-yard,  arse- 
nal and  camp.  The  ministry  took  tiic  ground  that  no  one 
nation  could  settle  the  Eastern  Question  without  tiie  con- 
sent of  the  other  European  Powers  and  that  Russia  would 
have  to  submit  the  San  Siciano  Treaty  to  the  consid- 
eration of  a  conference  of  all  the  Powers.  A  ia  was 
quite   eager   for   such   a   conference,    hoping  gain 

for  herself,  nor  was  Uer        y  averse  t  ;  For 

awhile  Russia  was  disposed  to  ignore   *^n  and,  but 

when  Fno^and  called  out  the  reserves  an  ed  7,000 

native  tr    ^     from  India  to  Malta,  she  ..vw  ....  o   yield. 


1^2 


England's  Progress 


Th 


)  ■  s 


Berlin,  June  13,  1878,  under  the 
irk      Lord  Beaconsfield  went 

in  pcr;>'^ri  jh  diw  i-i   tnt   r rp;  v :.„.:, .tatives  from  England. 

The  rc\'ibCii  treaty  providcil :  "* 

( 1 )    That  t^   •  H    T 


e  coriierence  nict 


(3) 
(4) 


V3  J 


(6) 


(7) 


\ 


turned   or   h:''t   tu    iuiKcy.      \ 


n  state  sh(juld  be  cut  up,  two  parts 
I   and   Eastern    Runielui,  being  re- 


uiiiier  the 
w  ;!^  !■)  u. 
a[)p(U';r     : 

s 


rule  of  Tu 


its  own  a 
^^ultan 


t  f 


(2)     iS;.    •: 

truin 


I  I 


cedonia  was  to  be 

:  Eastern  Rumelia 

I  under  a  governor 

was  to  be  self- 

liected  prince,  approved 

;       crs,  and  was  to  have  its 

sses. 

.      ina  were  placed  under 


I  '..^^- 


:n 


romised  by  Russia  for  Aus- 


w 


Ly  uuii 

to   hn.v 


'11  i 


r\i 


a  ■ ''  V 


l\ 


IS 


huiufha 


i  a.  >saiy,  though  the  buitaii 
to  postpone  the  gift  for  about  three  years, 
^ervia,  Montenegro  were  recognized  as 
iride|)cruient  >tates,  entirely  free  from  Turkey. 
KuNH  !  \  u  lowed  to  keep  Ardahan,  Kars,  Batoum, 
and   AruHiUa   l)ut  had  to  restore  to  Turkey  Bay- 

'}  7  1  f  I 

Conipietf  raTixinus  freedom  was  guaranteed  all 
(di list  an  su injects  by  the  Ottoman  government. 
Durui^  till  I oiiicrence  there  was  announced  pub- 
liiK  a  ret  agreement  only  a  few  days  old  between 
I  ii^lan  1  and  Tu  key,  which  might  be  considered  a 
put  f  h  pud  arrangements  made. 
1  iniav   J  t      to   introduce   the   long  promised 

rcfoianN  in  gu\  eiiuiiuiit,  and  also  allowed  to  Eng- 
I  uu!  flu  occupation  of  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  while 
I  ualaiul  in  turn  undertook  for  the  future,  if  need 
hr  n  force  of  arms,  to  guarantee  the  integrity  of 
tliu  Asiatic  dominions  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 

hi u:a!   revision  of  the  San  btefano  Treaty  was 
n    for   Russia,  glory  for  Britain.     The  rrime 


! 


Disraeli's  Second  Ministry,   1874-1880 


.a4^    \ 


M  ni^fer  stood  forth  in  the  eyes  of  the  world  a  con- 
queror, and  was  received  with  enthusiastic  laudation  on 
returning  to  England,  bringing  is  he  termed  it  **peace 
with  honord'  The  event  marked  tiie  hiphi-watcr  mark  of 
Beaconsheid's  popularity  and  influence,  in  the  last  years 
of  his  ministry  his  government  suffered  in  public  esteem 
on  account  of  disasters  experienced  in  effrrt^  for  fron- 
tier advances  in  Afghanistan  and  '^  u  :  Africa.  In  Zu- 
luland  six  companies  of  the  24tu  w-  cut  were  sur- 
rounded by  thousands  of  savage  warriors  and  every  man 
of  them  but  six  cut  down.  Disraeli's  imperialism  and 
colonial  ambition  seemed  dangerous  and  vulgar  to  some. 
In  January  25,  1878,  Lord  Carnarvon,  the  Colonial  Sec- 
retary, resigned  from  the  Cabinet  for  just  this  reason. 

But  it  was  the  government's  recognized  inability  to 
cope  with  the  Irish  malcontents  that  weakened  it  more 
than  anything  else.  Under  the  leadership  of  Charles 
Stewart  Parnell  the  Irish  members  of  Parliament  had  or- 
ganized with  the  purpose  of  obstructing  as  far  as  they 
could  ail  business  whatsoever  until  consideration  was 
given  their  demand  for  Home  Rule.  This  party  was  sup- 
ported by  friends  in  America  and  was  backed  by  a  well- 
constituted  land-league  among  the  Irish  people.  The 
Irish  faction  in  the  House  of  Commons,  by  making  dila- 
tory motions,  delivering  endless  speeches,  and  repeatedly 
calling  for  divisions  blocked  the  ministry's  bills,  and  «^tic- 
ceeded  thus  in  giving  the  nation  a  depreciated  sense  of 
the  government's  strength.  Then  the  country  was  suf- 
fering from  pLjricultural  depression;  harvests  w^re  poor; 
employment  was  scarce;  prices  were  low;  and  n  Ireland 
there  was  famine.  Conscious  of  the  growth  of  adverse 
opinion  toward  his  government.  Lord  Beaconsfield  in 
March,  1880,  dissolved  his  Parliament,  which  would  soon 


I  i^A,-     i;.,.^ 


I 


Pro 


{iress 


end  its  legal  term  of  seven  years  anyway.     He  hoped  tji 
gain  in  the  eicction  a  new  lease  of  power  by  presenting  to 

the  nation,  tfic  Irish  demand  for  Home  Rule  as  an  effort 

to  iH-ca.k  uf)  the  ¥aui>ii\:  and  !,)v  intimating  that  his  politi- 
cj!  mi  -miitN.  tfic  i  ■  .is.  \\;  ■■:  nut  <iiit  of  sympathy 
\vit!i  iW b  .^\^rl  n!  a  p".jj..:  a  •  h:  Jiin  a,d,drtm>  to  the  elec- 
tf)rs,  lie  '*v\airncd  tiu: 
mare 


V    \    '    i-  4   i    ft    ■-. 


-1       ;     -J  V]  erf-' 


ram  u  i  t  >  >  i'  <  i  r  c  c  i  \"   1 1,'  s  s  i ' 
i; 


r  in  its  ulti- 
a  nestilence  and 
famine,  distracted  iraiara:;  d  '^  •  •  ;  fd'  its  population 
was  endcaia'ifini^'  tt)  se\am  the  constitutie>nal  tae  t!a,it  u;ateai 
it  to  Great  Britaan.  .  .  .  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  aJi  men  ot 
light  ana  Ka  lirm  mill  resist  this  destructive  doctrine 
.   ,    ,    am.l  \a!  'in  '■'   'm*  some  '.\b.''  v.halii"  ;■   i.ic  expediency 


1 1 


r  »• 


1 1) 


miperoii 


.Li  I      I 


I  I  ned  thia'i  a  a  d 


I  -f 


!    t  I      :  .  '  •"'     Gladstone 

:h  f  who  endan- 

.. .  .  k    the  [.-Kirty  that  main- 
*  hinddam,  and  fraiw 


ul    tile   union    e 
authority   nl    T 
hind   the   three 
and  eqiiai  hiws. 


I  > 


m  t  the  true  supporters 
a  maiiij  uphold  the  suprciiic 
a.  hut  exercise  that  authority  to 
by  the  indissoluble  tie  of  liberal 
one  was  in  his  seventy-first  year. 
one  the  hwa  tlie  \etcrnn  statesman  fiercely  waged  battle 
addressmt^  ihiy  after  day  in  his  famo  ^  ■ 'd'Othian  Cam- 
I  oim  east  eoiRourses  oi  people  and  stirring  to  its  depths 
tlic  thought  of  the  nation.  The  laherals  swept  the  coun- 
try; 349  of  them  being  sent  t  t  as  against  243 
Conservatives,  and  60  Horn     i\ 

REFERENCES 

H  (r        h  of  Democracy  1 837-1 880,  p.  515. 


I. 


3. 


4. 


V 


\l 


h  of  Democracy,  1 837-1 880,  p.  552. 
History,  Vol  4,  p.  45. 


I  4  <\\ 


la  291. 


a.? .  J(l^n 


\"ol.  2,  p.  160. 


CHAPTER  XI 


GLADSTONE'S  SECOND 

1880-1885 


M  r\ 


Gladstone's   second   administration    (April,    i88(>-June, 

T885)  dihc  red  from  his  first  in  that  external  and  mili- 
tary rather  than  domestic  affairs  occupied  chieflv  the  gem- 
emment's  attention.  As  to  home  reforms,  the  mn  s- 
trv  s  work,  though  important,  may  be  told  with  bremty. 
\      mrm  received  benefit  from  an  employers'  liability  act 

i  a  increased  the  responsibihty  of  the  employer  in 
eat  t  accident;  the  tenants  were  pleased  with  a  new 
law  that  enve  them  equal  privilege  with  the  landlord  in 
ka  i  a  aa  that  injured  their  crops;  an  old  Non-Coii- 
m  r  i  i  t  ntroversy  was  brought  to  a  just  end  by  the  pas- 
<;nfre  of  a  burial  bill  which  first  gave  Dissenters  equal 
me      n    !i  Churchmen  in  the  interment  of  their  dead  in 

i  ai  h  cemetery,  burials  being  authorized  **either 
withe  ut  religious  service  or  with  such  Christian  and  or- 
derly service  as  the  person  responsible  miuht  think  fit"  ^; 
a  married  woman's  property  bill  was  passed  which  gave 
married  women  a  legal  equahty  with  men  as  regards  their 
incomes  and  what  they  made  or  inherited;  and  bene- 
ficial acts  were  passed  for  the  prevention  of  bribery  and 
corrupt  methods  at  elections;  for  administering  the  es- 
tates of  bankrupts;  and  for  giving  to  outgoing  tenants 
fair  compensation  for  improvements  of  a  permanent 
character  made  by  them  on  their  holdings.     The  Third 


R 


f 


\et  ^1884) 


.  n  ■.  1 


the  Redistribution  of  Seats  Act 


(1885)  were  important  and  natural  complements  of  the 

145 


146 


\  e 

tfu- 


England  s  Progress 

n    \  -:  of  1832  and  1867.    The  Act  of  1884  gave 
^^     t  t     rh     better  class  of  agriailtiiral  laborers  in 

the  counncs,  incrt-asin^  the  electorate  by  two  and  a  half 
million  voters,  and  established  a  uniform  householder 
and  a  uniform  lodger  franchise  over  the  whole  nation. 

The  Redistribution  Act  made  parliamentary  representa- 
tion K  ^s  uiici|u  il  by  taking  one  hundred  and  sixty  seats 
from  t[ie  smaller  boroughs  and  distributing  these  among 
tie  iiiH  c  populous  counties  and  towns,  and  by  forming  a 
nurnhei-  o(  single  member  districts. 

I  he  niiiiistry's  external  troubles  were  numerous  and 
ditluuh  l\ebellion  occurred  in  the  Transvaal,  South 
Aivica:  kwW  >tnfc  and  disorder  appeared  in  Egypt;  re- 
ligious i  inat;  N  spread  warfare  in  the  Soudan;  delicate 
questions  r^i  uii  policv  arose  in  dealing  with  Russia; 

and  across  M  (  le  ira-e's  Channel  there  was  again  turmoil 
and  crime,  flu  South  African  difficulty  was  a  direct  out- 
come of  the  imperialistic  policy  of  the  Beaconsfield  min- 
tstrv.      li;    1S77   tliat  o^overnment  had  decreed  that  the 


J  1 


young  n  111  '!  c  n\  the  Dutch  beyond  the  Vaal  River, 
formed  mainly  of  farmers  and  peasants  ("Boers'") 
should  be  annexed  to  the  British  empire.  The  step  was 
in  r  aji  roved  by  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  English 
pet)|  le,  and  was  bitterly  opposed  by  practically  all  the 
Dutcfn  I  he  I  ransvaal  state  had  come  into  being  in  an 
ettorr  of  the  Bners  to  escape  English  control.  On  three 
separate  nc  nnons  in  1836,  1S42  and  in  1848,  communi- 
ties in  iJii;  f)ia.h  unh  their  cattle,  slaves,  farm  imple- 
nients  and  other  iunrai^ings  fiad  trekked  out  of  a  colony 
in  It  s!i  rule  was  becoming  strong  and  was  inter fer- 


u  '  f  '  i ' 


ini!  u 


rfien 


ir  cuhtMiiis  and  institutions  (such  for  example 
^^^  ^he  i.'i'dnit;  of  slaves),  and  had  migrated  fartht/r  mto 
the  i  itn     ^  hoping  to  build  a  state  of  their  own  and  to 


./  :^  Li  Li 


Second  Ministry,  1880-1885      I47 


r  ■  i  n  s  V  f 


a  a  I 


lead  a  life  altogether  unmolested  by  Tm' 
The  Dutch  had  migrated  from  Capt    v 
then  froin  Xatal  to  the  Orange  River  cu. 
ally  from  the  Orange  River  countr\^  f"^  ^^ 
region,  only  to  find  themselves  every  taken  by 

the  Lii-k^h.  The  reason  given  in  1877  hn  the  annexa- 
tion of  the  republic  was  that  the  Boers  engaged  in  fre- 
quent border  wars  with  native  tribes,  and  that  these  wars 
tended  to  incite  hostile  feeling  and  attacks  from  the 
African  tribes  against  neighboring  Lnglish  colonies.  In- 
dependence for  the  Boers  was  declared  to  mean  Inse- 
curity for  other  British  colonists.  The  annexation  was 
regarded  by  the  Dutch  as  a  high-handed  outrage,  nor 
was  their  hatred  of  the  act  lessened  by  the  equivocal  and 
unflattering  promise  of  being  given  "the  fullest  legislative 
privileges  compatible  with  the  circumstances  of  the  coun- 
try and  the  intelligence  of  the  people.''  Seven  thousand 
out  of  the  eight  thousand  qualified  electors  of  the  republic 
signed  a  petition  asking  the  English  government  for  a 
restoration  of  their  independence.  But  their  appeal  was 
of  no  avail  with  the  Conservative  ministry.  In  1879  ^"^ 
again  in  the  spring  of  1880,  as  the  administration  drew 
to  its  close  the  Boers  were  given  to  understand  that  **The 
Transvaal  territory  should  continue  forever  to  be  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  Queen's  dominions  in  South  Africa,"^ 
that  "the  Vaal  river  would  flow  backwards  through  the 
Drakensberg  sooner  than  the  British  would  be  withdrawn 
from  the  Transvaal." 

The  change  of  ministry  in  1880  gave  to  the  Boers  new 
hope.  They  knew  that  the  Liberal  party  was  opposed  to 
Beaconsfield's  extreme  imperial  policy,  and  that  the  new 
Prime  ^Minister  did  not  sanction  the  method  employed  in 
acquiring  the  Transvaal,  having  referred  to  it  during  the 


14S 


Eni^-ariii's  Progress 


electoral  canipaign  as  having  **been  obtained  by  means  dU- 
horirirahlt'  to  the  character  of  the  country."  But  how- 
ever  much   tfic    Prime  Minister   niav   ha\c   sympathized 

with  tlie  Boers  and  appreciated  the  justness  of  their 
churn,  lie  foiintl  on  entering  office  tliat  the  facts  of  the 
situaton  at  that  time  made  it  \'er\"  unwlsr  if  mn,  impos- 

sihie  to  atteiTi|o-  tlien  tiie  repeal  ref  anncxatioiL  British 
I  oooiiissroaers  •  r  -j/  ■'-  vc -.  .  :  '  a  in  reports  de- 
chirafp^  v\dt  ^h'"      .\  <    -■  ,-.  .       h.;-..     •-,       lingf  of  acqiiies-^ 

cence  to  ilie  British  ruk:  in)  the  part  of  sonie  lO"  r^a'  Dutch 
and  that  'd  'Oofcui  feat  tree  ^Tri-cfrrr-efit  w- ■  h  '  ■  .ue  a 
reign  of  peace  arc!  order  triat  wauild  soon  wic  M\-c;r  to  it 
tfic  niajnritv  of  trie:  rest,.  Obligations  tiin  haA  !n:en  en- 
terccj  mtn  watii  tfie  natives  that  couhj  not  be  lunorcd, 
Coal  >troe  and  arnircfu'  seenied  possilde  if  the  hinghsh 
onn!e'haui\  wohO'eu  -ifOi  Mf  ^i-\i  nnimtiH  "  •,  D.odi 
COunt'^\  f<.U  o  ;n  h*re-;eh  *  .  "  .  !  .  o  '"  '  jj  -^  an  1 
settie-  .,,,*,  ,  .  .,  ^ 

ter's.  1  ,  "a*  \\.i\  i  i  •  ;-,  lif;  ti^o  '  ••  !or  ivji^jnor  t;p  i 
Cf)ntedi"\!tn)ri  ^o  s*  ■'.  ^  -.  "•  -rf  \ !  ••  .!  0  :  i  :  anc^^ 
had  heen  niack*  in'  ofliiiri   a.       ..   -  -     ■      ■'  ^   •    *  .   *h-  r 

sufiport.  (dad>tone  hated  :  ;^.^o.*a-  o.  D.rr.  hue 
was  lorced  h\'  e\  ents  t^  continue  the  work  of  his  joTde- 
CCSSor  In  office.  1  k-  '-dd  the  Boers  that  the  k,^-^oodv  v,,v- 
ereignt\"  o\Tr  tlac  1  rans'saaa  \\a)ukJ  he  tTiaintaineo  hut  that 
the  niHii^rrv  ik;sH-ed  Oiein  tn  I'liivr  the  \erc  fuhest  hherty 
In  niafKiginir  their  h'..d  j'r.i]r$:  and  that  ha  ^odieved  such 
libertv  CiHiki  l^e  niust  i'j,>iO  and  |:nuinp:iy  concedcil  to 
the  1'rans\aal  as  n  state  in  a  Smith  African  C(oifevh;ra-' 
tion. 

But  to  be  a  member  of  such  a  unieration  was  nut  the 
desire  r)!  the  Dat  1  n  d  i-  tw  tnornises  of  a  hirger  rneas^ 
lire  of   h'lcai  sei!--        .:  '.  enr  bemg  hestowedj  they   were 


Gladstone's  Second   Ministry,   1880-1885       149 

tired  (^f  promises,  \fter  a  great  public  assembly  had 
proclaimed  for  a  republic  and  a  new  government  had 
been  set  up  and  flag^  raised  (December.  f^So)  they  be- 
gan military  attacks  on  British  outposts  Several  small 
garrisons  were  overcome  and  at  Majuba  Hill,  Febru- 
ar\'  2"^,  1 88 1,  they  came  near  annihilating  a  British  force 
of  ^^0  seasoned  soldiers.  The  English  lost  in  killed, 
wo  d  uJ  captured  288  men,  the  commander  CoUey 
being  u  nnercil  among  the  dead.  The  Boers  did  not 
lose  a  noun 

This  disastrous  defeat  first  fully  aroused  public  opin- 
ion in  Fngland  to  the  seriousness  of  the  Transvaal  re- 
sistance. Revenge  became  the  popular  crv  and  rein- 
forcements were  sent  to  the  front.  But  stn  c  to  say, 
just  as  all  Enchind  was  listening  to  hear  ui  3vone  oc- 
cisive  military  operation  on  a  big  scale,  the  surprising 
news  came  tha  c  Prime  Minister  was  planning  to  with- 
draw the  garrisons  and  to  concede  to  the  wishes  of  the 
Boers. 

niadstone's  move  was  unpopular  and  required  moral 
courage.  To  withdraw  just  after  a  defeat  would  be  con- 
sidered a  confession  of  weakness.  But  peace  nesrotiations 
had  been  set  on  foot  bv  hhn  and  a  policy  of  conciliation 
and  friendly  settlement  a  :  been  deliberately  adopted 
and  begun  before  I  uiicy  unforiunately  occupied  Majuba 
Ik!!  Because  a  military  blunder  quite  disastrous  to  the 
hriglish  had  been  made,  Gladstone  could  not  see  that  he 
should  reverse  Iris  peace  policy  already  adopted  and 
recommend  revengeful  warfare.  Tn  do  that  would  be 
to  incur  blood-guiltiness.  So  in  spite  of  fierce  criticism 
from  many  in  Ikarliament,  in  military  circles  and  in  the 
natior  h  r  -d  :  to  a  conclusion  his  settlement.  If  fie 
Preto  dcd  August,  1 88 1,  recognized 


I  ^o 


England's  Progress 


deal   about,  \ 
resliie  m  anv 

! 


the  Boers'  government  as  a  quasi-independent  state  with 

specific   reservations    and   under  the   suzerainty   of   the 

Queen,  Three  years  later  the  Boers  succeeded  in  hav- 
ing modified  trie  Pretoria  agreement.  By  the  Loiidnn 
Cornent  in  i  -  .  the  old  title  South  African  Republic 
was  restored  arul  the  word  suzerainty  was  removed  from 
the  prea-iude  of  riie  iiiireeriuait.  Favoring  the  British, 
hcjweier,    was    itiserted    a    provision  which  later   at   the 

B(H  r  \\  ar  the  Dutch  heard  a  good 
white  men  to  have  full  liberty,  to 
OK-  repubhc,  t-  orede  in  it,  and  to 
be  liable  to  tlic  sa  o^  taxes  only  as  those  exacted  from 
citizens  of  th.v  republic."^  The  settlement  gave  entire 
free  1  01  to  the  Boers  in  internal  government,  but  re- 
8Cr\ed  [or  I  iiighinJ  control  over  their  foreign  affairs. 
.\n  to  where  complete  sovereignty  was  lodcred  the  agree- 
ment was  \  igue  and  just  here  lay  future  trouble. 

The  ^  a  ianese  entanglement  and  disaster  grew  out 
(d  1  nghm  id  interests  ifi  Idgypi.  bince  D'Israeli  in  1875 
bought  t  H  oolvTupt  Khedive's  shares  in  the  Suez  Canal, 
there  had  i  !;  u  d  a  steadily  increasing  control  by  Eng- 
larui  ]!!  I'iirv  |.)tian  a;!ao"s.  The  chronic  state  of  indebted- 
ness of  rlie  iro\  taaimeiit   had  hcen  accompanied  by  great 

pecially  from  England  and  France, 
these  two  countries  exercised  for 


ariu 


fcl 


'J 


the  protect  !i  d  creditors  and  investors  a  T)u^\  Control 
over  die  linuKaal  administration  of  Egypt,  f  lie  lat- 
ter part  )i  1S82  native  hostility  to  foreign  interference 
cuhniiKited  in  a  rebellion  of  subjects  against  the  Khedive 
Tewfik  aiivl  his  foreign  advisers,  led  hv  an  ambitious 
colonel  in  tfie  h  a:\  ptian  arm\-,    \s.:'-  Pa^-a. 


whose  popu- 


»» 


lar  slogan  \\as  "d  a\pt  lor  tia,,-  Egyptians."     The  Pasha 
pressed  tiie  Kliedive  so  hard  that  foreign  mihtary  forces 


Gladstone's  SeconI 


880-1885       151 


had  to  be  brought  in  for  his  defense.  Frincc  balked  at 
military  intervention,  but  England  \^ent  in;  arul  thus  sin- 
gle-handed soon  established  for  herself  a  permanent  su- 
premacy. Alexandria  was  bombarded  by  an  I  gdNh 
lieeL  A  British  army  was  sent  over  under  the  conimand 
of  Lord  Wolseley  gaining  a  victory  over  Arabi  at  fel  ad 
I  r;  a  cavalry  force  took  the  capital  Cairo  (Septem- 
ber 14,  1882),  and  Arabi  himself  and  main  supporters 
were  captured  and  banished.  With  the  col^  a  -  >){  the 
rebelHon  the  army  of  occupation  did  not  withdraw,  but 
remained  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  in  "preserving  the 
public  tranquillity/  This  assistance  soon  came  to  mean 
actual  direction  of  affairs,  for  the  governors  ot  Egypt 
were  compelled  to  adopt  the  policies  advised  by  the  Eng- 
lish resident  counsellors. 

Egypt,  though  unable  to  maintain  a  stable  govern- 
ment for  herself  was  none  the  less  vainly  undertaking  to 
subjugate  and  rule  the  wild  Soudanese  territory  of  the 
Upper  iSile  basin,  employing  arbitrary,  selfish  and  op- 
pressive methods  of  misrule.  The  Gladstone  minist  y 
had  eventually  to  interfere  in  that  quarter;  but  it  did  so 
with  decided  reluctance.  Gladstone  declared  **I  look 
upon  the  possession  of  the  Soudan  as  the  calamity  of 
Egypt.  It  has  been  a  drain  on  her  treasury,  it  has  been 
a  drain  on  her  men.  It  is  estimated  that  100,000  Egyp- 
tians have  laid  down  their  lives  in  endeavoring  to  main- 
tain that  barren  conquest.'*  ^  Not  a  jingoist,  and  ques- 
tioning the  justice  and  wisdom  of  Egypt's  control  in  tlie 
Soudan,  he  was  unwilling  to  give  it  military  support. 
N  '  imperiahst,  he  did  not  desire  to  make  war  on  the 
Soudanese  to  win  their  lands  for  England.  Ihic  insur- 
rections there  were  in  his  mind  justified  by  the  atrocities 
and  oppressions  of  the  Egyptian  pashas  and  were  con- 


152 


Efjijland's   P^-ogrrss 


sidered  but  the  restless  movcinents  of  '^peoples  rightly 

struggling  to  be  free."  lie  accepted  British  responsi- 
bility for  gCMu!  g-i.  :!r--i  c  ;.•  I\:v|:,  h\it  .hd  not  admit 
that^  this  poHt,..'  ^  / .:  ei-!/;.  .•-•  '■  ^  -  '  ^--  •■^--■- 
of  uridertak"ng  t^-  ciJ..  du-  :^Mi_,,:in 
it  woulil  be  t.^  ire?  I  .f-T-  t  ■  .  1m*  :• 
lier   go\-ern'  *     t       ■'-■  r'*    •*  .  -^    "■  '    c 


•    the    dinv 


N  ♦ 


.b  :  'U'  inttTvciir, 

.1  *    ;.  •     '  '^     ^o'ub.ie  to  lOHodl 

.  '    c  !   ■ .  .   ■  N,   and  to  iea\'« 

the  waste  coontix    oi   ibe   ii.e.bN  ^o    Os    ^   :     r  tribes.     In 

1884  Cdadstone  undertook  t(^  cano'  out  an  "abanJi)n- 
ment  puHc\-b'  d'be  Troui  sent  t-^  eoca  exoieuao.ai  oeis 
■dencra!  Idoirbcs  ( loi-doii.  I  in:  euu;  b.id  loo!  •..,  ^uhcK";-- 
able  experience  anb  success  in  i^'-\(Oiofig  or;io'it;d^.  bed 
won  worbJ-faiiie  ao  a  leai'ie*'  ;0  th,  bi\  crAdctorious  Amiv 
in  suppressing  the  f(ooo  =  ba'^iv-  bbu-Pinjc  rebellion  against 
the  (dritiese  go\a;rni]umt  in  1S04,  f]a,(.l  luom  b-uvp^t's  gov- 
ernor-genera! of  die  Souviaai  in  lajy.  foot  riu.  :n  bod  a 
heavy  hand  on  tin:  sbn  c  ,bode!o.  aaoi  wen--^  ]''■-''■'•':  recog- 
rii/eJ  as  a   iraeno  ^O   the   \\ea,k  and  uaaen;v;J, 

Dittieult  aiul  looojiiaa-  oai>  ins  taisk,  db'U'  ^{n,olanese 
rcbediuro  startCii  aiHM,o  i  sa^  o„  was  tired  hy  both  tiw  poHti- 
cal  and  rebgnaus  >|n;ao  hi  tans  \xar  M(donioro,:'.i  Arnncd, 
a  fanatical  native  nt  the  ldan;r  Xib:  ct.Hintr\a  bab  {'rn- 
claimcd  hiniseif  the  beaowfo>e!it  Messodo  U'  .•  ;  vt 
whom  the   Mosboris  teach  wtuad   a|'pear   ]..^'  die 

Judgment  I)a\a  He  touJ  dcidaaaal  !"ns  ••  •  '•  '"  a  to 
harrv  out  of  die  ^' ::\d  fbr  {H*i.|br*'^  no{oo,'sHn:'s,^  n:r  \\-''.kcd 
and   tfie  un!)ebe\i:on  one   do;   wnrid   O)   h'^   0,nO'!    and 

(lod,  Self-eonhbmO  'b  aaib  eb/upjent  the  piiipbet  lool 
soon  gatfiereb  inib^  e  -  icaoooolop  nnnd  nt  the  vwld 
and  excitaldt  ti-b^-  ,  '  ic  ^^ubJn.  caaO  uai>  o:  r.-w ,  n^^,;  woO 
skill  their  uiote  :  ^'-'"j^.K  in  oo-woig  o'l  lin,'  foitci.i  va-k 
of    higyptian    !abi         «'       'a-'     .b     Mrr\!Sfie>      fuid    sia 


oc 


ceeded  in  tOi'vO.o  o....  ...w. 


. V.  i  ^w.o, i,aii  ifviUps 


Gladstone s   Second   dlaao^/rv,    J880-1885       P53 


Stationed      \  arious  parts  of  the  country,  and  their  steady 
advances  }  ad   la  t  been  checked  bv  the  special   military 

force  dispaaabicd  from   kh.oooum  ;w  the  government   -d 


tfie   K\ 


uo.a\' 


Aeneral  I  bcks,  an   hujian  otiicer,  sent  out 


i  \  I  ovp         1883  in  command  of  a  native  army  had  been 

era  ^ao,a-n:0,  and  bis  wba)!c  host  cut  to  pieces. 

■Gordon  seemed  a  i^ood  nooi  to  tackle  trie  Maiido  1  i;s 
perse  na!  magnetism,  remarkable  achievements,  his  ndiu 
ence  ( oer  tilers,  his  contempt  for  money,  his  abounding 
seit-conhdence  and  sublime  faith  bad  stirred  the  luiagma- 
ti()n  of  the  English  people  and  made  him  seem  to  some 
the  inspired  heaven-directed  leader;  just  the  right  com- 
mander to  In:  [at^od  against  the  Soudanese  prophet.  He 
wa^  given  tfic  wadest  discretionary  powaar^  as  to  the 
methods  to  employ,  but  was  expected  to  undertake  not 
n  pnbcv  of  conquest  and  ride,  but  of  withdrawal:  nor 
Wis  h  o  count  upon  the  sending  of  a  military  force 
I     a  to  carry  out  his  plan.     But  Gordon  did 

IK!,  pr  d  tbiy  could  not,  keep  on  a  straight  course.  iHav- 
ing  gntten  himself  appointed  Governor-General  of  the 
Soudan  by  the  Kliedive  at  Cairo,  he  began  soon  to  move 
in  the  direction  of  establishing  settled  order  in  the  coun- 
try, heaping  to  reinstate  tlie  best  representatives  of  the 
old  rulers;  but  these  v'n:-■.^  not  be  found.  \rri\ed  at 
Khartoum,  though  \\bb.<au:vi  by  its  people  as  the  gnait 
deliverer,  lie  did  not  iHub  as  some  of  the  Arrdw  vAo 
had  in  former  years  served  under  him  prophesied  that 
the  Mai  di  s  b  des  will  melt  away  like  dew,  and  tlie 
Pretender  will  be  u;ft  like  a  small  man  standing  alone, 
uFitil  he  is  forced  to  tiee  back  to  his  island  of  ;\bbas."  ^ 
Tin  jiu  iOi  t!  ary  in  answer  to  Gordon's  messages  of  peace 
were  sent  insolent  words,  *'callin^  upon  Gordon  to  be- 
come a  Mussulman,  and  to  come  and  serve  tha  d     '  ]\y 


1^4. 


En(fland's  Progress 


:yi.  ill 


"(  t^ 


AlrciiJv  company  alter  company 
liail     been     tiestroyed.       As    city 

before  r?ie  attack  of  **Thc   !,\p.\,t(;ei  Tbir/'   ■  i 

"he  was  iriifiiorial  and  wnuid  nc\a:!"  die"  and  whu  was 
set  upon  killing  every  oiu  le  t  icknowledging  his  author- 
ity, the  terrified  Soudanese  flocked  in  tribes  to  his  stand- 
(loreloM  became  convinced  that  there  was  iiu  hope 
Soudan  so  long  as  the  Mahdi  liJi]  sway;  so 
)nnirAU\  and  now  proclaimed  his  plan  to 
''si!ia>h  u|)"  this  prupliet;  and  to  that  end  began  calling 


aa 
to 


I  e 


chanued    Ims 


o 


trii 


I,   i.11  ^i. 


tf\ 


hi  I  ! 

C    ilSKiHj    II  ]■■'{> 

/olnar  Idi>iia. 

capable 

large  p 


\  n\   a   liritisli  army.     Strange  to  relate, 
ir  die  re  should  be  sent  him  from  Cairo 


s  leu  u 


UM\tK..\ 


I  \     I   I   L  ' 


vv,  though  an  able  fighter  and 
WIS  a  prisoner   alio  had  been  in 
in   the  abominable  slave  traffic  of 


p  a  s  t 


U 


a  rev  I    H  a  u 


i) 


ecM  Jcpurtea  ior  that  reason 


tr  (  a  rn  I  lis  son  had  been  executed  by  Gordon  when 
ior!?iLr!v  n  authority  in  the  Soudan.  lie  was  believed 
t)  h  i\e  hcen  in  sympathy  with  the  Aiahdi  at  the  first, 
afid  was  rcL^ardnd  a^  the  encmv  of  both  Egypt  and  Eng- 
iH  rdon  claimed  tn  have  a  "mystical  feeling  that 
11   ZubLii    would  be  his  friend"   and  he  believed 


;l  n  1 


i  I   1.    :.  V    i 


that  a  this  powerful,  much-feared  master  were  put  in 
authorttv  )\  r  a  sort  of  buffer  state  between  Egypt  and 
Mali  in   ard  g      i    England's  moral  support,  he  would 

'■   because  at  Cairo  Zobeir  had  learned  of 
Hordon  had  said  that  unless  the  man 
era   was  in)  chance  of  getting  the  garrisons 
ac  tiie  less,  I  alnn.it.  Parliament  and  peo- 
d  1  not  stand  for  Zobeir,  the  ex-slaver, 
'  jordon's  \\a^  refused.     As  to  send- 

u'nr  Id  n d;  tr  lops.  there  was  much  hesitation  and  long 
deia  a    lufrn    such   responsibility    would   be    assumed. 


"rini  siaaina'^t 
England's  |h 

were  sent  "tdi 
aw  a \'  :  hin  n 
pic  m  1  'tspdias 
a  Hi!   tlvK 


V  > 


Gladstone's  Second  Ministry,  1 880-1 88 5      155 


Gordon  and  a  garrison  of  11,000  men  were  shut  up  in 
Kliartoum  by  the  Mahdists  in  Feb  \a  1884,  and 
though  the  nation  clamored  vigorously  all  through  the 
spring  and  summer  for  an  expedition  to  be  sent  ior  the 
relief  of  Gordon,  it  was  not  until  August  that  the  min- 
istry, consenting  to  the  plan,  asked  the  House  of  Com- 
mons for  a  vote  of  credit.  It  was  September  in: fare  the 
final  preparations  for  the  expedition  were  made.  An  un- 
willing body  of  10,000  men  under  the  command  of  Lord 


W  olselev  then  started  for  Khartoum 


n  \    i  i  1 1 


Nale  route, 


but  there  were  so  many  unknown  obstacles  to  encounter 
it  was  January  before  any  of  the  forces  got  within  a 
hundred  miles  of  Khartoum.  On  several  occasions  the 
British  had  to  fight  back  the  dervishes,  lit  finally  on 
January  28,  1885,  a  small  force,  numbering  only  26  Brit- 
ish and  240  Soudanese  who  had  boarded  2  small  bullet- 
proof steamers  sent  down  by  Gordon  to  meet  the  desert 
column  at  Gubat,  came  in  sight  of  the  besieged  capital. 
Uver  it  waved,  however,  no  longer  the  Egyptian  flag. 
Two  days  before,  the  dervishes  had  assaulted  and  taken 
Khartoum.  Gordon  had  been  hacked  to  pieces,  the  starv- 
ing population  massacred,  and  the  city  eiven  over  lu  pil- 
lage. And  yet  three  whole  days  had  been  spent  at 
Gubat  in  merely  reconnoitering  and  making  an  exchange 
of  troops ! 

When  the  news  of  the  awful  calamity  reached  Eng- 
land consternation  and  anger  seized  the  people.  They 
were  incensed  beyond  measure  with  the  government,  so 
halting  and  dilatory  its  action  had  been.  The  Incident 
was  referred  to  as  "the  betrayal  of  Gordon.''  The  Queen 
openly  expressed  her  displeasure  and  the  ministry  es- 
caped censure  in   the  House  of  Commons  by  only   14 

n   .    The  government  hardly  survived  the  blow 


i;6 


Enahi fid's  Process 


For  eleven  years  the  Soiuian  was  abanJ^-icJ  hv  I'ng- 

land,  all  military  forces  having  bet. '^  ubi) Jr^--.  •■  .md  ttu; 
country  left  in  control  of  the  neoo'es,  H..er  o:,  r^'/O  its 
reconquest  was  unrlertakeii.  An  l\^y|Hian  arniv  i.arLiuhy 
disciplined  and  |-oo'|v,ir-cd  !^\'  !om!:^h  *oheer>  and  laelei-  Uu: 
commaiiil  of  linfaNri  Loouoad^  eicaord  h\  S;r  1  boan-a-  Ka- 
chener,  marched  oito  the  Middle  NiK:  \adie\.  tlrovc  the 
dervishes    frr;fn    tlir    l)^'..-'         -  ■  e.    vvon    \  uOnnes    at 

['"erkeia  Abud,  laincv!,  \-  i  :-  ;o?  '  t  inujuroain.  in  the 
hitter  of  which  battles  ^eaoeesi  of  die  i:iu:ii\x  weie  taigat^ed. 
i  1  ,000  of  *hefii  kdliai  ja  i  lO.-itn?  wiruriued;  reo-,,'uraeO 
Khartoiini,  ea  ;.••,„■  '  ■  e       ^-d  tne  r:  i^   ^r  hovi- 

hfa'A  power,  ra  '-.0  <'..'  *e.  >(HRiafi  trie  htaiid:ard  ui  uuLii 
lrg)-pt  and  I  n.A  ■  '  la.-,  tiie  boands  im'  British  con- 
trol waaa-  exr  r,  •  ,  :^  dina.a  and  the  murder  of  Gordon 
Iiad  been  a\'eni!;ed. 

After  the  Soadanese  embroilment  Gladstone  wds  al- 
most brought  int  \  ir  with  Russia  because  of  the  unwar- 
ranted ad\a»a:e  ui  that  countr}'  oa  Afgfhan  territory,  a 
buiier  state  l)et\veen  Russia  and  lra,ha,  A  Ru<^sinn  anriy 
had  ad\aincd  into  \*^'  n,  wfapped  the  Ameer's  forces 
anil    annexed    tfie    .  d    •.  hdaiiiieii.      To   oppose    the 

further    advance    A:  •'      iia,d    la^    diffiailty   in   getiana 

trnifi  Ihuanaua'  ..  ^^rr  nf  credit  of  a.eKes.noo  pounds 
[{;'•   the   arnrv    .  *  ^.i.;,.,iM;    a;e,c''as    for   tiie    !arv  )•  ;    and 

later  for  frinitscr  iJefense.  Caarjoa}oi)  pounds.  I  Uc  India ri 
government  l^egan  tin)  a  nuahih/ation  of  troops  and 
showed  readiness  to  send  to  the  iriait  if  needed  ';o,ooo 
men,  Confiiet  was  a\aHded  iaewever  b\'  Lonci!iator\-  tac- 
tics,—dry  discu!>sni^r  tl'ie  |anNsi!aht\-  oi  arbitral  ini^  tiic  iroit- 
tcia  antJ  i)v  insntiOiaa:  s  ;o'-'^w>uao,d  aaws  ear' ■o.-^u  t^-r  n^••i-^ 
trab/ing  the  ternti)r\-  aatd  a  iiounda'v  ■  .  ■  ■•  .  aild 
be   appoifited   and  couid  deternune   'n      O'  -'   :    ■•■-'    tfie 


t 

) 


Gladstone's  Second  Mfnhtry,   1 880-188 s      157 

rights  of  ownership.  The  frontier  boundary  hne  be- 
tween the  Oxus  and  the  Hari-Reed  was  marked  out  in 

1887. 

To  alhiv"  troLdfh!  in  ira,Aoad  Aladstone  eniph:)ved,  but 
without  aiavdi  success,  economic  and  discipbnary  meas- 
ures, hi  i88o  he  passed  a  bill  makiig  a  "distinction  be- 
tween ttsnse  who  would  not  pay  rent  and  thoM:  uaio  eouul 
nut  ;>';  a,,  ...iiuiit  of  bad  harvests/'  and  that  abowed  no 
eviction  d  tenants  unless  the  landlord  paid  **compensa- 
tion  fctr  dasturbnnced'  In  iSai  he  tnissed  a  hind  bdi, 
tha  o  r  dished  a  land  court  through  which  a  :  t  :  ^  r 
"jii  i  rent''  might  be  fixed  in  case  of  dispute, 

acted  11  general  favorably  to  the  tenant,  red  la  aie 
excessive  rents  as  much  as  a  third  or  a  half.  I  a  se  hiws 
were  denounced  by  prominent  Liberals  as  aeb  i  by 
Lunservatives  as  "demoralizing  and  dishonest,  as  a  hrst 
step  to  social  ward'    They  cans  d  ^  carnations  from 

the  ministry.     Nor  did  the  laws  Irish  people 

who  hoped  at  some  time  to  get  i  J  ^Ji  a  as  tec  land- 
lords altogether,  and  to  gain  nationality  for  the'r  coun- 
try. Charles  Stewart  Parnell,  the  shrewd,  cynical,  deter- 
mined leader  of  the  Home  Rulers,  declared  the  land  acts 
shameful  nnd  urged  the  farnasrs  not  to  make  use  of  th,e 
bold  cn.irts  until  certain  test  cases  hail  hvcn  made.  As 
hicvi  iA  a  laitional  land  league,  termed  h\  Man  Fdirster, 
the  Secretarv  firr  hadand,  an  'dlbrgal  and  criminal  organic 
zation,"  ibirntdi  wati!  h:s  fnbro\x,TS  certamly  winked  ar,  if 


K    .     i 


■rao 


they  did  not  encourage,  all  manner  of  agrarian 
Those  who  uniustly  evicted  tiaiants,  those  who  Ci.i^cxi  10 
take  their  vacated  tenancies,  and  those  who  refusctl  to 
follow  the  league's  advice  or  orders  as  to  settlement 
of  annual  rents  and  rents  in  arrears,  were  apt  to  siiiler 
punishment.     Threats  to  kill  sent  through  the  post,  the 


158 


England^s  Progress 


throwing  of  bombs  and  explosives,  killing'  of  live-stock, 
arson,  shooting  into  houses,  boycott  ni,  murder-,  formed 
a  veritable  reign  of  terror.     Agr  r      i 

froni  863  in  1579  t*.^  2589  in  \y^--^.  ,ied  evictions  rose 
from  6239  in  1879  to  10,457  ^"  i^'m).  in  tlie  fruirth 
quarter   cjt"    1S81    there  were   732   outrages  oi    whuui   42 

were  eitiuu"   murders   np  attcmptN    at    murder.      And   Uiis 

too  norwithstandnig  tlie  fuel  t!nU  ,•  I'ruteetion  id  idu)pcMv 
Bill  and  an    \rirss  f^ilL  um.      ^     •     •      ^  -■  ^'^  tin;  lord- 

lumteriafd"  for  deterrn--  ■',..  m  ,s;NhmL!  t  rmnmds  ha^t 
!)een  |.mssed.  h  xercisi'u.^  'u^s  extramunna  r-;/  jw,:',ima  f^ors- 
ter  liad   Faanud!  and  a  }n,ti!'  ili>/en  o\   d;.  jnet  supporters 


a r res tee 


- 1 1  \ 


I     \m 


prisoned     m     Kdnnn 


"auiltv  of  treaNnnaJde  joujctices 


in 


iiu 


as    men 
wvd  to  preach 

rmo  e    did   not 


i^iueruaa      On   the   contra  r\a    the    \ns\\ 


tlie    gospel    of    ynhhx    piundei 
destroy    I  *  a  • 

jicuipkn  ma  •  '  !mn  as  illegally  iiieareei-ateJ,  waihnut 
just  eausi  .1.  .  '  1-  trial,  were  ready  to  follow  the 
1  a-ue's  "No  i:  t  Manifesto"  which  the  imprisoned 
Idoaiel!  ins[ ureJ  and  endorsed,  advising  tenants  to  pay 
nut  a  penmr  e)f  rent  until  the  government  freed  and 
treated  witli  fairness  their  leaders.  Outrageous  agra- 
rian erimis  multiplied  again  all  over  the  South  and  West 
t)t   frclanKl. 

(daeistume    hated    xo   cmplor  cive   measures,    and 

liaving  learned  that  Forster  had  a  old  by  an  emissary 

of  l^aiaudrs  who  had  visited  iiim  m  j.i'-a.  tdint  in  case  of 
I^a  ruidds  release,  tiu  hns!?  Umder  u  ouKJ  ilo  all  m  his 
pi)\\an"  tsa  sti)r»  ■  ■' ^v..._Ht  um,  mtumdatinn  ami  (uitiaiges  of 
c\-ery  sr)rt,  tfie  Idaane  Mmisier  derided  tn  rrmke  a  new 
departure  and  try  tin?  ettect  of  kmdei-  meth^HJs,  freemg 
IdrrnelL  his  confede rates,  and  '*all  suspects  not  as^-Kdated 
With  the  eoinmissioii  of  crimed'      Forster.  hi-vianam    ior 


Gladstone's  Second  Minnirv,  1880-1885      159 


Ireland,  disapproved  of  tliis  bargaining  with  criminals, 
and  resigned  office.  In  his  pane  ( iladstone  put  Lord 
Frederick  Cavendish,  a  (iinoica 


-  n .  < 


*.  1  I   s.  I. 


adh 


erenr  \\ario 


wa^  du,'  husband  ot  a  niece  of  M^'o  Gladstone  and  who 
had  \frrkad  out  a  financial  plan  for  a  new  land  purchase 
sehen  e  for  Ireland.  But  Cavendish  had  been  in  Ireland 
only  i  few  days  when  he  and  his  under-secret  a  rv,  Mr 
Burke,  were  foully  murdered  by  assassins  in  Pr  dx 
Park,   Dublin,   in  broad  daylight.     The   horrible   nine 


^^11 


he   invin- 


was  the  act  of  a  body  of  conspirators 
cibles  Gladstone  was  constrained  against  his  preference 
to  abandon  his  policy  of  conciliation  and  to  employ  dras- 
tic roerciie  measures.  A  'special  tribunal  of  three  judges 
was  created  for  trying  cases  of  treason,  murder  and  seri- 
ous crime,  which  sat  without  juries;  the  right  of  public  as- 
sembly was  restricted,  certain  newspapers  were  sup- 
pressed, extra  police  furnished,  arbitrary  arrests  allowed, 
and  the  police  given  the  right  to  search  houses  day  or 
nipht  for  the  discoverv  of  apparatus  of  crime.  A  vig- 
orous enforcement  of  this  Crimes  Act  by  Mr.  Trevelyan, 
the  new  Secretary  for  Ireland,  and  by  Lord  Spencer,  the 
new  \dccroy,  brought  abuui  for  a  short  time  a  more  quiet 
state  «if  affairs.  They  unearthed  several  dastardly  at- 
tenps  n)  use  explosives  to  frighten  the  government,  and 
arrei>tcd  and  hanged  some  of  the  Dublin  murderers  and 
rme-leaders  in  crime.  But  while  sedition  and  crime  were 
suppressed  for  a  while,  it  became  evident  that  no  enforce- 
ment act  would  solve  the  Irish  problem.  The  Irish 
would  nut  endure  the  thought  of  having  over  themselves 
a  special  system  of  criminal  laws  and  soon  serious  dis- 
order^  were  again  rife. 

1  he    liash    \  a:  on  i lists   were   bitterly   angered   at   the 
ministr}  ve  policy.     Led  by  Parnell  this  parlia- 


i6o 


/.*.'/  jHiPs  Progress 


nieiitary  i^roup,  rumihcrinp;  thirtvnuie,  leagued  with  trie 
Coriser\'ati\-cs  and  repi"csciitati\'es  t)f  tfie  brewiTS  2nd 
sa!i')on-keepers  and  defeated  t,he  aiiniinistaaitinn  on  the 
liquor  tax  June  s,  iSS:;,  idadsfnfu;  fortliu-ith  resiorned 
oftiee  to  Lord  "^^edsrueor   *';;;   d  <  ev.i  r\  ,0  :\'-;'  holder. 


1 


i. 


REFERENCES 

Low    and   Sanders:   Political   iii^tury  of  England,  Vol.    12. 


Li!c  <>t  ("flRd^tone,  Vol.  2,  p.  20b. 

'L:U'  ;e   (d^.donne,  Vol.  2,  p.  285. 

1,0c  ^.^  i  o,,ao,^nr'.  \'>d..-  2,  p.  385. 

tc   fO    viv:re^.rj,    i\    loth 


p.   00^ 

2 , 

.Mnrir.  : 

"J 
J- 

Mnkx  : 

4. 

Aloon  : 

5- 

[..ana:   1.. 

CHAPTER  XII 


;.,    V    . 


SALISBURY'S  FIRST  MIX  I STRY,  1 

GLAD^ddhxr^s  ddlli^h)   MrXiolRY, 
iidBRl  ARV ILLV,  1856 


AND 


I    c'- 


I  1  Sahsbury's  brief  ministry,  June  24,    i8s;     t 
ruary,  1886,  the  Irish  and  Conservative  parti*  :   - 

gether   temporarily.      Lord    Carnar\  00    the    ro  0  - 

pointCii  f  .ord-Lieuteraint  of  Ireland,  expressed  h"'^'>  ''  .s 
not  unfavorable  to  the  Irish  ha  vine  0  it  oal  .01- 
tonomy.  He  expressed  the  intent  n  0  dr  0  ;  oiii  rhe 
hated  Cdames  Art  of  liis  j/^redecessor  in  e)!iiee,  an-l  ex- 
pected "Irrsghshnien,  Scotsmen  and  hrNlinicn  to  live  to- 
gether harmoniously  in  the  United  Kin  rd  n  as  they  did 
in  the  {dae>ri  colonies.''  Salisbury  was  triou^lir  to  have 
had  Uic  1  lome  Rule  question  in  mind  v\-hen  makd^er  tiie 
following  statement  in  a  public  address:  'In  a  hupo  > 
tral  authority  the  wisdom  01  scvrd  parth  ot  tia  i  an- 
tr\'  will  correct  the  folly  a^d  mi^^akr  .0  one.  hi  e  !',.eo;! 
authority  that  correction  ;^  o;  t  oer,Ji  ureeo-!'  lexteat  ar.,oit- 
ing,  and  it  would  be  impossihie  u  do  lat  at  ui  iigiit 
in  any  extension  of  local  authority  hi  Irehmd.    ^ 

In  the  general  election  held  in  N  d  er  when  the  new 

franchise  and  redistribution  of  seats  bill  of  1884  first 
became  operative  tJie  Parnellites  hearti!\'  supported  the 
Conservatives.  No  part  of  Ireland  returned  a  single 
I  il  to  Parliament.     The  cities  and  towns  of  England 

too  niaiiiiy  went  Conservative.  Cdadst^et  A  hi  '  de*-s  in 
.rg\p*    end    the    "^tjuehoi,    tearb   as   to  hi^  •      • 

lb  I 


I  (}  2 


England' ^  Proffres$ 


tablishment   of 

taxing  more 

Liberal     cruul 


i  1 1. 


sr  T-vA^i4\  C"luif\1i.  and  hlh  poHcv  of 
I  th  'r^Vir^^M-b  told  heavily  against  the 
cs         fi   t     tlie     agricultural     laborers 


grate fui   for  the  new 
te ,  11 


-:f!e!n,e:ev'ment   law   turneJ,  oiu  in 
,  ,11!    i,,rcr-    if-i:^    s-t.'  ■    .  I  '  .    :.     eive   Glad- 

stone's  party   :i  t^ua;   ;et,    ,  "        '    J'a.       '  -■?    '\^   *>^'^^* 

the  Conser\eitivt;s,.  Parnell  hrniimir  with  him  this  time 
g-  fnHn\\e:r':-„  areJ  with  rherr  \t)te>  fie  was  able  exaetU^ 
to  Dttset  or  cancel  die  Libenil  majoritv,  I  lie  exaa:  re- 
turns ft!'  tfu;   election   were   3J;    lerH-rals,    249   Conser\ai- 


1 1  \  I-  > 


•  i  i 


powari'  la,  \   n 


sf.   Irish   Nationalists.       i  lie-   tiie  balance  ot 

^-\-  in  the  hands  of  the  1  Lenc-  Riue'->. 
But    dtaurneil   to   speedy  disapptMntoieMr   were   the  ex- 
pectations of  the  Irish  i^ri  up.     No  sooner  had  the  new 
Parhaiieiu    met     (January     12,     1886)     than    the    an- 

nounceiTient  wa^  made  of  the  resiuaiati'm  ui  liie  amiable 
Lnrd  Car!iar\eei.  hi  the  nueeihs  siHMreli  occurred  the 
statein  it:  *'I  have  seen  wtii  deep  sorrow  the  renewal 
since  I  his?  addressed  you  of  the  attempts  to  excite  the 
uei  yh  of  Ireland  to  hostility  against  the  legislative  union 
[n/tween  tiiat  eountry  and  (ireat  Britam.  1  am  re-n.^ 
kjtelv  opposed  to  anv  disturl^ance  of  that  fundamental 
hiwe"  And  trie  (daief  Secretary  to  Ireland  announced 
after  a,  tW(^  dae^d  .d:-e!  tii  Dublin  that  :i  fiew  Coercion  lid! 
was  t'.:>  he  a,t  o!u,.-  iiO  r'no  uva:d,  in  ihirHanieiU,  "dealing  untfi 
the  national  hmpm.  intimidatiein.  and  the  protection  of 
life,  property  anvl  public  orderd'  Idle  frdmdly  expres- 
sion:>  of  opiniim  concerning  a  freer  Irehuid  nnide  h\'  :i 
few  Conser\oiti\a;  leader-  l^cforc  anil  during  a  ffcnural 
eleetiofi  did  not  i|uare  wed  with  the  governmental  poUcy 
of  the  Cd)nser\  arive  ministry  now  in  office.  Disappointed 
and  resentful  Parneli  turned  agauu  I  le  knew  that  lda,d- 
sr   ne  r  ad  hist  faitfi    n  all  efforts  to  quiet  Ireland  by  coer- 


' 


Saiuburv'.^  Fir^t  and  Gladstone's    Third  Ministry    163 

civc  methods,  that  he  regarded  the  Irish  question  as  para- 
mount to  all  other  questions,  that  he  had  vainly  sought 

to  pet  fjie  idmservatives  to  co-operate  witii  the  fdberals 
in  t  ndiuL!  a  solution  of  the  Irish  problem,  and  that  he 
personally  favored  some  form  of  home  rule.  1  he  Irish 
leader  reached  the  conclusion  that  he  could  get  more  for 
Ireland,  from  the  Liberals  than  from  the  Conservatives, 
and  in  consequence  he  now  mustered  his  forces  to  Glad- 
stone b  side  and  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  Salisbury 
Tt>fni<*-.'v  defeated.  On  the  27th  of  January  the  vote  of 
lensL nt  n  le  form  of  an  amendment  to  the  Queen's  ad- 
dkL^:,  LApressing  "regret^'  at  the  omission  of  a  minor  allot- 
ment measure  in  the  interest  of  the  agricultural  classes 
was  passed  and  the  Salisbury  ministry  was  retired,  plac- 
ing Gladstone  in  power  for  the  third  time. 

hi  e  veteran  statesman,  now  76  years  of  age,  decided 
to  undertake  the  laborious,  heroic  task  of  forming  for 
Ireland  a  full-ordered  system  of  self-government.  This 
too  noiu  ithstanduig  the  fact  that  in  tiic  genera!  election 
just  had  Home  Rule  had  not  been  the  leading  issue.  He 
knew  too  he  would  encounter  the  bitterest  pposition  of 
influential  classes  in  England  and  in  the  Pruicbtarii  prov- 
ince of  Ulster.  Against  him  were  the  Conservative 
party,  the  Peers,  the  Queen,  and  several  of  the  foremost 
men  of  his  own  party.  Among  his  former  ministerial 
roll e agues  and  men  of  weight  who  would  not  follow  him 
weri  I  ord  Harrington,  the  leader  of  the  moderate  Lib- 
er h  heal  Bright,  a  man  of  Influence  with  the  N  C  on- 
forn  Nt^r  Trevelvan,  former  Chief  Secretarv  for  Ireland, 
and  (..diarnhindain,  head  of  the  radical  group,  (iladstmie 
claimed  to  offer  a  **plan  of  duly  guarded  home  rule  tduit 
maintained  in  fud  the  *'unity  of  the  empire,  the  aut'n  •  w 
of  the  crown,  and  the  supremacy  of  the  '-u 


164 


Entflan^s  Progress 


ment/"  His  famous  Hornr  Rule  Bill  \%%6)  prnvidcil 
for  an  Insh  l',\t;.un\i;  wh-  fiavi  Luntrol  of  the  police, 
and  fcjr  a  body  *n  hu^di  ri-pt-rscrn .j,ti\-es  cht^siai  In  Irish 
constituencies.  Ireland  wa^  fic)  lo!iger  tu  Iku'c  iiuaai- 
hers  in  the  f-jiglish  Parha!;u;t;0  insh  judges  \\a;re  to  be 
under  the  control  of  tfie  Ira^h  LeL::>Jature;  and  the  Irish 
l.egishiture,  rhoui^li  gl\aui  the  ng'iit  ts)  h:\  \-  ta,xts,  ua^ 
denie(i  the  power  to  place  dutiCs  on  Bntisli  ^r  ioreiixn 
goods,  to  csta!)iudi,  or  endow  any  rehg-uiN  instututuaK  aud 
to  deal  with  matters  aneetin^  the  cruuai,  army,  iia\-y, 
trade  neg'otiattiuiis  and  coinage.  In  return  for  benefits 
received  fr  )iii  rlu  English  connection,  such  as  defense, 
frehmd  wais  to  pay  into  tlie  liritish  treasury  for  imperial 
expenses,  a  sum  enual  to  one-twelfth  ot  the  British  rev- 
enue, Ahun^  wuth  h;s  I  i-uK;  Rule  Bill  Gladstcuie  intro- 
duced also  a,  Land  lhuuaia^e  Bill.  **F\-cry  Irish  iand- 
h:)rti  was  to  ha\a,;  tru;  oiuo'-'^^  nf  seihfig  fiis  estate  to  the 
tenants,  who  wnuhl  I'ec^cju'  the  |)ro{U'KUi)rs  at  once, 
thougli  liable  to  a  [ui'-ouv^'U'  of  interot  at  inur  per  cent 
for  fortv-nine  va:ar^.  \  \m:  price  wouhi  he  !\vent\'  \ears' 
purchase,  the  secLnutv  u'ouKi  he  the  revenue  of  Inuund. 
If  everv  huushu-,?  de^uu^u  at  once  to  sell  the  whole  of 
his  propertv,  HrOisii  cretht  nui^ht  he  pkuJired  f^^  the 
amount  of  a  tunidriul   aruj   no^    'udhons  sterhngd'  - 

Idle    efitari    to    imsn    \^.[ir".i  engiaidereil    \i\    Parlia- 

ment, in  the  press,  \n  \hAiI\k,i\  cuul^h,  \n  iarnuc  an>J  \n  ho- 
cial  ^atlieringh..  the  futOuu-'O'  docu^sue^^.  \  Ur  Ihuuic 
Minister  was  o      •  ■\Ju-uj.s   inesoc^au  '      The  best  men 

of  the  na.tHan  \\'i\  .  .  \\  to  L>pnu:>c  i  luuiL  Ride  had  flimg 
at  them  such  eptum-  as  "rraitord'  "sycopfuint,'  ''cow- 
ard/' The  uni'  y  '  \  s  .u"'  *  .  h.ireil  to 
be  "sacred  to  the  fnenacuw  o?  hdttd'  iu  )UuIu  lu  tlie  fhir- 
ncllites    wa^    te^    make    teruis   ■^vinfi    Fenian   conspirators, 


Salisbur\^s  First  and  Gld(bwne*s    Third   Mntistry     165 


criminals  and  assassins.  Idu;  hind  purchase  act  was  ob- 
jected to  a>  "class  legislation."  Llomc  Rjuc  \s^"'u\d  -^woa 
Rome  Rule,  an  idea  fancied  by  ntutlua'  tfie  loii^hslt  ,.\uud- 
cans  nor  the  IVesb\a-,  !ua:\s  id  Sc*'thuuh  it  rruumr  ^'seiuu- 
ration,"  a  dissolution  of  Empire.      \u  1      t  i 

icw  iilusLriouis  nuui  such  a^  RIiixlc),  1  o  h<d,  I  euros  , 
Browninp:,  Lecky,  Seelev,  and  Froude,  R,ord  Salisbury, 
the  Cdmsiun-ative  chief,  expressed  himself  as  s;ir:sUioJ  tiujt 
Ireland  needed  onh    "resolute  govemmentd' 

Biit  (dadst'uu^  was  tired  of  special  Cdmne  Acts  and 
Ar  I  s  \  o  for  Ireland,  not  believing  that  the  hisli  wee 
uf  ft  or  self-government  having  taken  a  hi  !  a  d  e 
of  origuud  sun"  I  K;  rec(>|^m/cd  that  aristocratic  power 
and,  iufhience  were  a,iramst  t'um,  but  he  hoped  ti.)  wm  a 
\uctorv  throui;h  tfie  pcjiu;,.  ^  >upp^}rt.  ''On  the  su.le  c^f 
our  n|ipunciUs  aj-e  found,"  he  said,  ''as  I  sorrow  full\'  ai,.l- 
mit  m  [ua>tuse  abundance,  station,  title,  weahdi,  social  ui- 
fluence,  the  professions,  or  the  large  maj  r  \  f  uirni  1 
a  wcuui,  the  sp;ro  aruj  ■ouvcr  ol  class.  But  thw  l^uumd- 
able  array  is  tru,-  same  that  has  fought  m  e\^io-v  one  '>f 
the  great  poh  o    -     f  the  last  sixtv  }co      od    us 

been  defeateih  \\  1  ua\c  iK,o„i  urcat  controc-ersics  beoue 
on  tree  trade,  tvvc  m.!\auatb'in  lod'h,-  rdmaO."m.  rehgu'ms 
equality,  extension  of  the  suffrage.  <  ^  n]i-^c  and  many 
other  s't'^at  issues  the  classes  have  f  ug  t  un 0  rndv  on 
t'  J   side,   and  have  uniforrnh      co     I     on    'n    ;i 

ore  difficult  to  marshal,  but  revu  it  >  ;  u  uu  - 
i.  .      uy  the  upright  sense  of  the  nat     uA 

But  as  it  turned  out,  Gladstone  was  imable  to  win  his 
own  party,  much  less  the  nation  to  his  side,  rhi  bil!  was 
rejected  in  the  Commons  (June  8,  1886).  iiic  \ote  being 
343  against  3  pi.  \uietv-three  Ralnuud*';  \'oted  with  the 
majm  u       !     A  tment  having  been  dissolved,  and  appeal 


i66 


England*5  Progress 


made  to  the  country,  a  still  greater  defeat  was  sustained. 
The  result  of  the  polls  (July)  was  315   Conservatives, 

78  Liberal  V moni^i^.  IQI  Liberals  ;ind  86  Irish  Na- 
tMinaiistN^  '"YIm:  lJ!n:'ra!  party  had  been  disrupted.  The 
7     I    1h  I    1  I  Jed  to  co-operate  with  the  Con- 

stnativcs  arui  '^iirpn't  a  Conservati\  c  ministry  before 
tf!  \  wnuid  \u:l  i  [.  i  jiadstone's  guidance  in  the  matter 
()!  I  1  ni  Rule.  Since  the  Unionists  could  show  a  hostile 
iiKij  ir\  nf  (ucr  iou,  there  was  no  course  open  to  Glad- 
stvinc  hut  til  fcsign.    The  il^'^-'n  sent  for  Lord  Salisbury, 

a  hninistration,  which  lasted  for  six 


\Tuirs   (  A  u^;i 
balislHir\''s    f 


s  ecu  Hi 


t 


'  ^ !.  "■^  >  1 1, 


pcnnv   u 
hill.  [^rus\ 


n  !  f 


V   1886-August  18,  1892).    Creditable  to 
Ni    brief  administration   of  six  months  was 
!    M\(  i  II   worthy  measures,  viz.  an  eight- 
an  Australian  Federation  measure,  a 
a  >ccri  tai  vship  for  Scotland,  a  law  for  the 
Ixtti !   protection  of  y(  iris,  an  act  empowering  the 

local  government  councils  to  destroy  houses  unfit  for 
habitation,  a  measure  providing  for  better  housing  of 
working  people,  and  a  Land  Act,  modelled  on  Gladstone's 
Land  Act  of  1881,  by  which  it  was  provided  that  tenants 
buyinc:  nut  tlicir  landlords  might  have  advanced  them 
as  a  !  iifi  h\  trie  government  the  whole  amount  of  the  pur- 
chase money,  instead  of  only  three-fourths  of  it  as  pro- 
vided in  the  act  of  188 1. 


REFERENCES 


I. 

2. 


Paul:  Modem  History  of  England,  Vol.  2,  p.  15. 
Paul:  Modern  History  of  England,  Vol.  5,  p.  46. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

SALISBURY'S  SECOND  MINISTRY,  1886-1892, 
GLADSTONE'S  FOURTH  MilM^  f  RY 

1892-1894 

The  government  of  the  Unionists  did  not  announce  or 
undertake  any  special  legislative  program.     The  Cabinet 
was  formed  at  first  of  Conservatives  only,  though  baHs- 
bury  had  invited  some  of  the  Liberal  Unionist  leaders 
to  enter  it,  even  going  so  far  in  his  magnanimity  as  to 
promise  Lord  Hartington,  possibly  the  most  influential 
Liberal  Unionist,  the  support  of  the  Conservative  party 
if  he  would  undertake  to  form  a  ministry  and  head  the 
government.     But  Hartington  saw  that  the  chief  of  a 
party  group  as  small  as  his  own  could  not  expect  to  be 
prime  minister,  and  as  to  his  party  uniting  with  the  Con- 
servatives, he  knew  that  that  combination  was  mainly 
on  the  one  ground  of  a  common  hostility  to  Home  Rule. 
On  other  questions  the  Hartington  group  being  Liberals 
still  preferred  to  stand  apart  and  use  their  influence  to  . 
**prevent   the    Conservative   government    from   a   retro- 
grade poHcy."    They  sat,  therefore,  as  ordinary  members 
of  the  opposition,  though  they  supported  with  their  votes 
the  Conservative  government  on  most  of  its  proposals, 
some  of  which  concerning  domestic  reforms  were  cer- 
tainly not  illiberal,  and  others  of  which  concerning  colo- 
nial and  foreign  affairs  involved  no  question  of  party. 

Salisbury,  who  was  Foreign  Secretary  as  well  as  Prime 

Minister,  was  'Toreign  Secretary  first  and  Prime  Minis- 

167 


1 68 

tcr   aftenTarJs/ 

affairs  \u>ii   I'ur 

ptM (. e-! •  ^-x  inLT      '\ 
iichurx  vir::.\:-  <r 

making!  ^^   .m   •- 


En  0  land 


Progress 


sec 


5-  J  *      *    \    >  J 


ill     Ml 


li      excellent  handling  of  external 
recognition  as  a  "skilful  and 

'.  -■  y  Aiiionix  the  important 
♦       *  ioned  the 

France  that 

'■  /A':un  oi  i'>.'  Ma  /  t  ..'m1,  and  threw 
open  tfii'.  hi^^J'^vav  -f  commerce  to  the  --^  ms  of  all  na- 
tions, i\  ('  to  their  vessels  of  war.  though  forbidding 
liostilc  Mian  luviih  n  the  canal  or  on  its  banks;  the  mak- 
ing of  a  trcatv  wit  ft  Ixussia,  concerning  the  \fghan  bound- 
arv,  that  maintained  still  Afghanistan  as  a  buffer  state 
bt)aHKi  the  legitimate  sphere  of  Russian  influence"  and 
strengthcmd  tiit  Aria  er'<?  throne,  but  yet  by  yielding  to 
Russia  certain  mini  t  rntorial  concessions  in  the  Kush 
and  Kasan  \a!H)S  in        !  end  to  a  serious  controversy 

W'hicll    l: 

in    wa  r  : 


I  ^  N 


I  n 


aa  \ 


1 

c  r  a  i 

SI     ;    ?   "-7     *"   ~ 
U  I  ■  J   t. 

1  n    1  r  *■ 


u; 


i.;, '.  •«- 


c a  lu  mar  involving  England  and  Russia 
r  a  f  the  formation  (1887)  of  the 
f  c tvuen  Germany,  Austria-Hungary  and 
^  iHshurv's  opinion)  would  have  the  sev- 
n  i  _  I  ranct  in  efforts  to  win  a  naval 
Mediterranean,  of  holding  Russia  back 
bsive  policy  and  of  insuring  for  some 
years  at  Ic  ist  tin  peace  of  Europe;  the  relief  of  Suakin,  a 
town  on  the  Red  Sea  maintained  as  a  check  upon  the 
slave  tra  le  which  tlie  Dervishes  threatened  to  attack  but 
from  wi  nh  they  were  driven  by  a  combined  British  and 

the  liai]     f  British  officers,  an  affair 

ai    1     rope  that  the  safety  and  order 

y.  :  v!  directly  on  the  British  occupa- 

>'    British  territory  in   Africa,  as 

igreements  between  J  irigland  and 

I  ranee  and  Germany,  marking  out 

of  control  and  influence  in  sec- 


native  !ori,e  nndar 
that  nKuJe  clear  to 
ot  hanaipe  were  Jr 
tnai ;  anu  the  e,  o' 
well  a>  t  iu.;  f  orr'i  ■■. 
the  rnt^ern,  V  r  i  ..^ 
their  re>pe^  f  n> 


Salisbury's  Second  a 


n 


169 


.A     V-i   A.    A    '.v4    ' 


t^  ■'  \ 


ation    or 
territory 


'   .■  A   fro 01 

b   given    by 

:  ^  ■  '    L'-O- 


tions  of  the  dark  continent.  Nyassaland  and  Uganda 
came  into  the  control  of  the  English  who  had  but  recently 
secured  too  baiiia.  ia.re,i  Bay  on  tfie  east  coast:  and  the 
districts  of  the  Oii  Rivers  at  the  11       :  \  j       ^ 

Zanzibar,  Matabeleland,  Mashonahu 
Zululand — also  became   British   through 
protectorates.      P     fn^ia!   secured  a  distri 
north    of   the   Zambesi;    France    got   M  = 
Congo  territory  on  the  west  coast  and  the 
Algeria  to  Timbuctoo;  and  to  Germany  \\a 
Fr  L!land  in  exchange  for  her  claim  to  the  11 
German  East  Africa,  the  much  coveted  isle* 
land  in  Europe  that  lies  at  the  mouth  of 
that  Germany  needed  for  a  naval  coaling- 
October,   1889,  was  granted  the  charter  oi 
African  Company,  a  corporation  ''half  1     n 
imperial,"  akin  to  the  old  East  Indian  Cone  a 
It   in   eventually  bringing  under   English   dominion   the 
better  part  of  an  immense  continent. 

During  Salisbury's  ministry  there  assembled  at  the 
Foreign  Office,  April  4,  1887,  the  First  Colonial  Confer- 
ence, a  body  of  statesmen  representing  a  population  of 
nine  millions  and  an  area  of  seven  million  square  miles 
"united  \  de  golden  link  of  the  Crown."  ^  Plans  of 
union  lor  imperial  defense,  unions  for  war,  rather  than 
schemes  of  constitution-making  and  political  federation 
were    the    practical    subjects    the    Prime 


half 


.  ^  i 


Nter 


'!]' 


couraged  the  uunlerence  to  discuss  and  work  out.  One 
tantnhie  result  of  the  Conference  was  an  increase  in  the 
nundn  r  of  cruisers  in  Australian  waters  for  the  protection 
of  the  shipping  interest,  the  expense  of  maintaimng  the 
cruisers  hnufr  borne  by  the  Au^  alian  Government.  In 
1887  was  formed  the  Council  of  Imperial  Institute  that 


^^Sf-s'wrf'^"  A«%sw^""\*^ 


"t^.    "^&,x„^ 


En^f-and^s  Process 


represented  t\ 

Queen'b  Coloni 


ic  f^rir; 


I  s 


1     4 1    I    L    t  , 


a  I 
I 


"w a s  C" CI i 

\'icti>ria  '^i  a,  tiall  tCii 

nurnlicring   iojhh.  uss 

solciTiii   rchi^HJus  scr\ 

ministers  < 

the  most 


...  !  T . 


U  1  >  i  1 1 


f.  t 


.,  the  Empire  o*  i        i,  and  the 
;  .  Ill  June  of  thih  too, 

\V\   f  !       r  r  Abbey  the  comp:  t        by 
\  N  ruk       In  the  brilliant  tiuong, 
ibled  withm  the  noble  Abbey  for 
:   were  rajahs  from  India,  prime 
\  erning  dependencies,  delegates  from 
riies,  the  ecclesiastical  anJ  political 
di^rnitarlv     ui  (.rcat  Britain,  members  of  the  royal  fam' 
ily,  and  tiic  Crouii   Prince  of  Germany,   Her  Majesty's 

The  great  concourse  of  people  gathered  in 
]  ill  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom  to  witness 
r.   Pariiament  Street,  and  the  joyful 
ilay  in  all  parts  of  the  empire  were 
tlie  Queen,  of  loyalty  and  pa- 
subjects  and  of  the  moral  unity  of 
feature  of  the  celebration  in  India 
25,000  prisoners.     The  jubilee  strength- 
lal  idea  too  and  directed  attention  to  the 
nn;;'^  ening  the  national   defenses.     The 
i\al  idard  was  soon   adopted   and   in 

agreed  to  for  enlarging  the  navy  by 
mvolved  the  expenditure  of  21,500,- 
000  pounds  beyond  the  ordinary  estimates. 

1  iiL  democratic  and  social  measures  of  this  ministry 
may  be  regarded  as  fruits  grown  on  the  Liberal  Union- 
ists' grafting  recently  implanted  on  the  old  Conservative 
stoek     Their  most  successful  measure  was  the  conversion 


en  ft  -"  *■■'  - : '  ■  i\ 
Lund-n  n-^-n 
tiic    lira  id    I 
celebrat!    '•- 
testiinon.es 
triotism   of 

the    I'r^;p!:"e. 


Of 


le 


eru. 


1        k   :■   I  L 


n 


necessity  o' 
Two-Power 

1889  a  scheme  w 
70  new   dnj)^   tiia 


ol 

T' 


» \ 


\  J ! : 


I  i-t 


o 


1888  by  Mr.  Goschen,  a  Liberal 
made  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
when  Lord  Randolph  Church- 

iiad   resigned   the   office   on   account 
I]      t  certain  extravagant  mili- 


Salisbury's  Second  and  Gladstones  Fourth  Minis 
tary  expenditures  tue  Cabinet 


ir 


I avnrcd 


Mr,    (lOSLhe 


r\ 


irave  the  holders  of  the  government  bonds,  the  option  of 
d  in  full  at  the  nominal  value  of  their  bonds, 
»    them  and  having  the  interest  on  them 
^^'  '     '         ^  ^H  per  cent  and  in  1903  to  2^^  per 

cent.  I  hose  holding  the  securities  preferred  to  continue 
to  keep  them,  and  the  transaction  thus  netted  the  Gov- 
crnment  an  annual  saving  in  Interest  of  1,500,000  pounds, 
^rom  the  proceeds  of  increased  liquor  taxes  Mr.  Goschen 
enlarged  the  resources  of  the  County  Councils,  and  thus 
made  possible  some  local  governmental  advances. 

In  1888  was  passed  the  important  County  and  District 
Councils  Act   which   created  throughout  England   and 
Wales  elective  boards  to  which  were  transferred  many 
of  the  powers  formeriy  exercised  by  the  justices  of  the 
peace  at  quarter  sessions.     ''The  pith  and  marrow  of  it 
was    the    substitution    for    administrative    purposes    of 
County  Councils  elected  by  the  rate  payers  instead  of 
county  magistrates  nominated  by  the  Lord  Lieutenant. 
As  a  court  of  justice  and  of  appeal,  the  magistrates  would 
contmue  to  sit  in  Quarter  Sessions  as  before.^'  2    London 
was  also  made  a  ^'separate  administrative  county,"  and 
to  the  new  council  were  given  practically  all  the  more  im- 
portant  powers  and  functions  of  local  government,  ex- 
cept  cc^ntrol  of  the  pohce,  which  order  was  left  under  the 
control  of  the  Home  Office,  being  regarded  as  a  National 
and  not  a  Municipal  force.     By  the  act  the  people  of 
London  were  enabled  for  the  first  time  to  direct  their 
own  local  government.    There  was  a  part  of  the  metrop- 
olis, however,  the  old  City  of  London,  that  remained  dis- 
tmct  from  the  new  county  corporation,  and  that  was  al- 
lowed to  retain  its  ancient  rights  and  privileges.    In  1889 
Scotland  had  its  local  government  reformed  by  the  estab- 


l*JZ 


England's  Progress 


>■•<.  r  r  i 


rodiic 


:ed 


lishment  of  elective  county  boards  and  it  ais( 

through  the  local  authorities  free  elementary  cilucatiori. 

In    TB91    Parliament    passed    the    Free    Education   Act 

which  apidied  to  I'npeinJ  :ifid  Wales,  arid 


ade  the  ed 


a'i- 
cation  grataiitous   \n   th 

I  h  rt  9    was   'pasMxi   a    1  ■ 


the    e!in'e^>\a]]cru 


earned  hi  i  Sq  i  ,  ' 
against  uiisanitar\ 
dents,  arii}  auaaiisi 
as  swcatiriiy.  A  re 
\  lAcd  '  •  >'  .,eaj;er 
I  }:i  ^ai.da  1  I  '  '  ' 
the   thritdv   vvorka 


t:ieriu:ntar\ 

of   I  . 

.  :  we    ■ 


!  n 


1 1.  S     1    .4 


il5. 


ag. 


,chools. 

'^hildren 

r    10 
^PP  was 
ti)  safeguard 
n:>i  aic  and  acci- 


iblic  I 


I  \ 


C      i  "!  n  f*  *"  \  ■       i      J  's  !  i  '  t  i''  I  1 » 


!  h 


if  commercial  nrnression 

h  Act  for  London  pro- 

aits  and  a  better  water  supply. 

f  1892  was  planned  to  furnish 

ith  small  allotments  of  land. 

s  \\c  .     o  borrow  funds  and  might 

to    the    extent    of    advancing   three- 

h  asL   money  which  was  to  be  gradu- 

c   !  ai^  and  yearly  instalments. 

ndand    tier    loiiservative    Ministry's   plan   was 

1  iu    Crimea    \e^   of  the  Chief 
passed  in  the  ig  of  1887, 

\\  bile  not  siispciia.iig  the  Habeas 
(P.r^-ms  Aea  ^--  Icgah/inp  arldtrary  imprisonment  of  sub- 
ject I  it  pruvidedlfor  bringing  over  to  England  for  trial 
those  committing;  serious  crimes  like  murder.     It  gave 


a  S'^!  ^t 

four  til 


ally  paid  nit  tli 


!  a  I'M  e'e 


the   pu 


I 


■  o  r 


<  r;  I  \ 


Scerctaa*\a    Mr.    1 
weis  most  striniien 


t  h  c 


,  o  r  I '. 


ccuteriarit  inr^ccr  to  de 


icelarc  niei^al  any  sort  of 


league  e^r  assiuo^ 
allowed   the   tna 
offieers,  HOi-ie  se 
the  h.i\m   neMea  J 
and,  Ne* 


lUli. 


n  a  bey a nee  at 


he  deemed  dangerous,  and  it  even 

of  cases  of  conspiracy,  by  magisterial 

whom  were  ignorant  men,  unversed  m 

ay  juries  as  was  required  in  England 

u  severe  measure  was  to  be  in  force  or 
the  discretion  of  the  T  ord  T  h  utenant, 


C  ,  ?e7, .  „  me  ' 

but  unHke  former  coercive  acts  that  were  limited  in  time, 
the  Balfour  Act  was  to  remain  a  permanent  part  of  the 
Irish  legal  system.    To  impede  the  passage  or  the  bill  the 
Irish  representatives  used  all  manner  of  obstructive  tac- 
tics, necessitating  the  amending  of  the  rules  of  debate 
and  procedure.     In  1879  it  was  estimated  that  "Parnell 
had   spoken   five  hundred   times,   and   that  two   others 
had    spoken    over    three    hundred    times    each." «     To 
tacihtate    the    transaction    of    business    the    "cloture" 
had  to  be  employed.     The  adoption  of  the  new  rules 
nights   P""'"'"""'"'^  *«^'0"  °f  1887  consumed  fifteen 

Of  course  coercion  brought  on  again  crimes  and  out- 
wf"    ,'^^l«S""s  was  at  its  height  in  the  fall  of  1887. 
Whc.    .•  rhament  the  previous  year  had  rejected  Par- 
nells   .      ant  and  Leaseholder  Relief  Bill,  that  proposed 
m  the  interest  of  the  distressed  renters  that  a  Land  Court 
should  have  power  "to  reduce  any  judicial  rent  fixed  be- 
fore 1885,  and  that  on  payment  of  half  the  rent  with 
arrears  eviction  should  be  suspended,"  there  had  been 
started  n  sort  of  no-rent  league.     It  was  agreed  that  all 
the  tenants  of  any  Irish  estate  who  felt  that  their  rents 
were  excessive  might  meet  and  in  common  decide  what 
rents  they  felt  to  be  just;  that  they  should  offer  these 
rents  to  their  landlords,  and  that  if  the  rents  were  not 
accepted  in  settlement,  the  money  should  be  paid  into  a 
common  treasury  in  the  hands  of  trustees  to  be  used  to 
r       •  ons.    The  government  treated  the  association 

as  an  ,  ., ai  conspiracy.  Many  league  meetings  were 
broken  up,  numerous  agitators  arrested,  and  leading  po- 
litical offenders,  though  members  of  Parliament  like  W  I- 
ham  r)Hrien,  seized  and  handled  like  ordinary  criminals. 
Balfour  eventually  succeeded  in  bringing  better  order 


174 


England' 


/*( 


Hiiress 


Remedial  as  uell  as  repressive  methods  were  employed. 

I  U    R  JiKcd   judicial  rents  lixcJ  by  earlier  land  courts, 
made  l.uhl  purchases  easier  and  furnished  material  relief 
to  large  poverty  stricken  areas.     In  a  visit  to  the  poorest 
part^  of  the  West  ul  Ireland  in  the  autumn  of  1890,  he 
saw    for   himself   a  state  of  destitution   that   he   felt  m 
duty  bound  to  try  to  relieve.     To  furnish  employment 
fourteen    tliousaiia    pounds    were    spent    in    constructing 
radwavs,^      n     which    work    as    many    as    I3)000    ^^^ 
ucrc   employed  at  one   time,   for  whom,   when   without 
shidu  r,  tiie  Government  furnished  huts.    To  mitigate  the 
siitierinc^  causefi  h\  a  ptMiiti^-Lruv  tailure  he  raised  a  con- 
siderilX    charity   fund   and   secured  also   a   grant   from 
the    British    Exchequer.      The    Government    advanced 
money  also  f"^^  n^<:isting  in  p:etting  a  larire  (|uantity  of 
seed-potatoes  for  the  spring  planting  in  the  ianune  dis- 
trict.   The  Land  Act  of  1888  authorized  the  advancing 
by    the    irovernment    authorities    of    another    5,000,000 
pi         tenant  purchasers.    Balfour's  krcrer  Taind  lUr- 
d     ,      Ml   of    1890  went  much   further.      For   the   n  -? 
time  the  state  was  allowed  to  advance  the  whole  of  the 
purchase  price,  the  tenant  to  return  the  sanie  by  paying 
a    four   per  cent  annuity  on  his  holding   for    f      \  -    1^ 
years  and  as  much  as  30,000,000  pounds  was  authorized 
t  )  be  spent  by  the  Treasury  in  aiding  buyers  oi  land. 

In  1887  interest  in  the  Irish  question  was  considerably 
stimulated  by  the  publication  in  the  London  Times  of  a 
series  t^i  article^  entitJcd  "Parnellism  and  Crimed'  The 
Times  presented  sc\a:ral  letters  tliai  b.ire  Parneirs  signa- 
ture in  which  the  Irish  leader  when  m  K  Imainham  prison 
was  incitiniT  base  fellows  outside  to  commit  crimes.  In 
one  of  them  appeared  statements  that  might  be  construed 


!;«♦*•.»" 'sw»;"'?4  .  '.;'  <*».i"waii. , 


Satisbury's  Second  and  Gladstone's  Fourth  Ministry  175 


in  a  fash 


on    t, 


1  ''I  f 


^^'ould  indicate  that  Parnell  had  sanc- 
tioned or  c-n  :  „c,l,  if  he  had  not  instigated,  the  assas- 
sinations of  Lord  Fredericlc  Cavendish  and  Mr,  Burke 
in  Phoenix  I'uk      i'aiaeil  catco-niically  denied  from  his 
seat  n  Pn rhament  the  authenticity  of  the  letters:  and  next 
year  an  investigating  Government  Commission  of  three 
judges  discovered  that  they  were   forgeries.     A  needy 
adventurer,  "Dick  Pigott,"  had  sold  them  at  a  handsome 
price  to  the  manager  of  the  Times.     In  course  of  the 
trial  the  wretch  had  confessed,  recanted  and  then  con- 
fessed a  second  time.     Finally  he  fled  from  England  to 
Spain,  and  finding  when  in  Madrid  that  detectives  were 
close  on  his  heels  he  blew  out  his  brains  !n  his  room  at  the 
hotel.     Parnell  instituted  a  suit  against  the  Times  for 
hbel  and  forced  the  paper  to  pay  him  5,000  pounds  dam- 
ages.     The  expense  of  the  whole  inquiry  amounting  to 
250,000  pounds  had  to  be  borne  by  the  Times  also.  The 
final   report  of  the   Government  Commission  of  three 
judges,  made  in  February,  1890,  completely  exonerated 
Parnell,  and  his  colleagues. 

Noting  the  result  of  the  investigation  and  trial  on 
public  opinion,  Gladstone,  whose  mind  was  wholly  set 
on  Ireland,  began  to  draw  closer  to  Parnell      In  mid 
December  of  1889  the  Irish  chief  was  a  guest  at  Hawar- 
den,   Gladstone's  home,   when  the  outlines  of  another 
Home  Rule  bill  were  drawn  up.  A  conclave  of  prominent 
Liberal.   Had    been   held,    and   their   decision   to   retain 
though  with  reduction  in  number,  the  Irish  members  at 
Westminster  when  granting  Home  Rule  had  made  some 
of    these    men    better    pleased    with    the    bill       Cecil 
Rhodes,  the  South  African  "Diamond  King,"  had  come 
to  the  support  of  the  Irish  cause  too.    Rhodes  was  inter- 


1  7  0 


Encflan^s  Process 


catcd  in  Imperial  rcdenition.  lie  bchc\cd  that  lor  Ire- 
land to  have  her  own  legislature  for  local  affairs,  as  well 
as    to    !  avi    representation   in    the   English   Parliament, 

vsrnAd  further  his  plan  of  having  a  ^rand  i^nvperial  As- 
scinhlv  representing  all  c>f  Fnirhind's  dominions.  He 
oiiered   iu,uuu  pounds  to  i^arnell  in    1888  for  advancing 


t  i.  (  V 


NatMHiali^^^ 


,-^  ^-^   <$  Tf  r^  jr%         *^  •^ 


(a)fuiit;t'n  tiiat   tfic 


Irish  mem- 


bers shnuk! 
final  1  Irvine 
teatcd   1  in 


\i      i  !  «  ' 1 1 1       %  > 


u '  1 


lioldiy    a^iv 
against  the   I 
mug  the  se  it 


ninster  bv  the 

with  the  de- 

hamentary 

_  ■  ■    fKu!   I'^cen 

Ireland  as 

and  had  he  en  win- 


K  ;^  '   Rill   of   1550.      ... 

'      e!    the  Liberal   ca 
.     die   policy  of 

St  plan  of  coercion  ai 
:    ri*-  the  Unionists  wcr^  weakening  an-l 
the  opposition  gaining  strength  tlie^  ^own  by 

tlie  faet  that  there  were  seventy-t^  ii  constituencies 
whidi  in  i>^'^(^  were  rer'^resented  by  forty-seven  Union- 
t^  and  thirty  Liberals,  that  in  the  fall  of  1890  were  rep- 
resented bv  thirty-six  Unionists  and  forty-one  Liberals. 
But  iiiNt  as  thr  tide  of  public  favor  toward  llnriii;  liule^ 
!h  -  in  !  \\im  Strongly,  and  the  Gladstonians  are}  1  ar  1  !- 
btcs  wern  becoming  intimately  friendly,  the  whole  politi 
eal  w orhl  was  astounded  an  1  shocked  by  the  rumor  that 
Captain  <  )  Shea  was  petitioning  for  a  divorce  on  the 
nil  1  i  thai  Parnell  had  for  years  been  living  with  his 
wife,      ddic   news   seemed    unhelievable    for   ^  ''^au  a    had 


been  tfu*   emissary  of   ibirnell  when  iji 

iiisf rumental  in  getting'   Parnf^^N 
liani   |)rn.()n    under   1  dadstone  -    ..  :r    " 
Ciiariie   wais    nrum       1  4;  Mr- 
iiinise!  1.     an,b     I'n.     v  ^  •nr? 


)an 


( I  i  i,  I.  i 


aii   been 


nounceii  a  cor 
Mrs.  ^ )'Shea. 


4-4ir  A.    ^  j:  -V   *.  i. 


*  • '     i  I  I  e  I K 1 
I  "^  n f'o 

ii  -  L  I      iiiti  i  i  ivv,4 


Salisbury's  Second  and  Gladstone's  Fourth  Miui.iry   177 


It 


I  he  jglv  incident  was  of  great  poBtical  significance. 

nrruadv  destroyed  Parnell  as  the  leader  of  the  Irish 
I  le  refused  to  resuiri  the  premiership  of  the  Irish 
iNationahst  group  and  for  the  remainder  of  his  life,  which 
lasted  only  about  a  year,  he  wapfed   a  bitter  contest  to 


the  wranirle  eausinir  division  in  the 


maintain  his 

Irish  pariiamentary  group.  But  the  strain  and  disgrace 
soon  told  on  his  strength,  and  in  1891  at  the  early  age 
of  45,  he  died  "killing  himself  by  overwork.'* 

The  incident  gave  a  considerable  set-back  to  the  Home 
Rule  Cause.     Undi  bfn  ndl  was  out  of  the  way  Ireland 
itself  was  divided.     The  Cathohc  Church  could  not  en- 
courage its  members  to  give  loyal  allegiance  to  the  guilty 
chief,  the  destroyer  of  the  peace  of  a  home.     Many  of 
the  English  Liberals  amono:  the  Non-Conformists  and 
Churchmen  withdrew  at  once  from  co-operation  with  the 
Parnellities.     Gladstone  declared  that  his  own  leader- 
ship of  the  Liberal  party  would  be  "almost  a  nullity''  if 
Parnell  continued  at  the  head  of  the  Irish  Nationalists, 
and  later  he  openly  opposed  him.     Eventually  only  26 
of  the  70  Irish  members  of  Parliament  stuck  to  Parnell; 
44   left   him,   choosing   Mr.   Justin   McCarthy   as   their 
chief.     With  this  McCarthy  group  Gladstone  continued 
to  work.     He  had  been  laboring  in  the  hope  of  win- 
ning in  the  approaching  general  election  a  big  enough 
Liberal  majority  to  settle  the  Irish  question  possibly  in- 
dependently of  the  Irish  group.     But  after  this  "heav- 
iest  blow  ever  received"  he  saw  this  was  impossible.    The 
general  election    n  July,  1892,  held  on  the  dissolution  of 
parharnenf    hy   Salisbury   was    a    great    disappointment 
to  Inin      III    receixed  only  a  majority  of  40,  in  which 
had  to^be  included  all  the  Irish  Home  ibb  The  ver- 

dict of  the  polls  was  269  Conservatives  ^na  46  Liberal 


178 

»•   . ' , '  ^  i  J  i 


England^ 5  Progress 


.  adstonians  and  8i  Irish  Nation™ 

al.st^.  1  iit  I  :.'K.A  purtv  ri-uj  surtcrcvl  ;n  ilie  campaign 
not  onh^  ironi  t!u:  lri>li  split  but  also  from  the  "New- 
castJ;;  ])v^.rdv^Aum\i:y  "fliis  platform  had  been  drawn  ^.^u) 
by  Uk;  National  I  ihiaa-l  Federation  at,  Newcastle  in 
October  of"  iS^i.  in  no-  cfi^oa:  u.^  rcccnuile  \arious  rival 
groups  of  f.ihcrals  ariii  Radiaa/i^  !)v  i^uaiig  something 
to  cacfi,  arivi  to  make  a  paojuiau  uv,j.id  enough  for  all 
to  sta  1  I  upon,  a  very  comprehensive  scheme  had  been 
cvohcd.  including  besides  Home  Rule,  Disestablishment 
of  the  Ciuirch  in  W  aics  and  >v  otland,  local  option, 
ab^iiitiion  of  |)hira1  voting,  payment  of  saiancb  to  mem- 
bers i^\  I  arliament,  employers'  liability  for  accidents, 
and  tik  establishment  of  councils  for  parishes.  Each  of 
these  {-roposals  liad  its  armv  of  opponents  and  their 
unitAai  stre!iji:ili  had  tohj  mightily  on  election  day.  The 
Conservatives  had  received  the  support  of  the  Anglican 
ch!^C^^^  oi  the  or^ranized  liquor  trade,  and  of  a  great 
l)i).jv  of  eiiiphva  rs  (^f  hibor.  Gladstone  entering  now 
upon  }iis  fourth  ministry  found  himself  *'in  the  hands  of 
his  alh(  s  iioni  across  bt.  George's  channel/'  He  had  to 
make  1  hnne  Rule  the  foremost  question  of  his  adminis- 
tration.    But  he  wanted  to. 

Thp  Home  Rule  Bill  of  1893  differed  from  the  Home 
kiih  !h;:  of  1886  mainly  in  two  respects:  (i)  the  Irish 
legislature  was  to  consist  of  two  houses  instead  of  one, 
the  upper  house  to  be  composed  of  48  members  chosen 
!v,  pHisoais  owning  considerable  propern^  '*with  a  ratable 
I  li  10  i  20  pounds  or  more,"  and  the  lower  to  be  com- 
j  !  o!  103  members,  representing  the  existing  parlia- 
fiR!Uar\  electoral  district  ul  Ireland;  and  (2)  Ireland 
was  u^  !ia\e  rcpresentaf!\'es  at  Westminster,  80  of  them. 
whu  were  to  vote  on  all  imperial  concerns  but  not  on 


Salisbury's  Second  and  Gladstone's  Fourth  Ministry  179 

matters  that  concerned  sokK  England  or  Scotland,  or 
on  taxes  not  levied  in  Ireland,  or  on  appropriations  for 
other  than  imperial  purposes.  As  in  the  bill  of  1886  the, 
Irish  parliament  wa.  lu  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  con- 
trol Oi  tiie  army,  navy,  customs,  trade,  and  foreign 
affairs;  but  otherwise  the  country  was  to  be  given  full 
authority,  and  to  have  complete  control  of  all  internal 
matters,  such  as  poHce,  laws^  taxes,  and  education. 

The  bill  was  detested  by  the  Conservatives,  and  so 
fierce  was  the  opposition  and  lengthy  the  debate,  that  it 
took  six  months  to  get  it  through  the  Commons.  The 
measure  passed  on  its  third  reading  by  a  vote  of  301  to 
267,  but  on  being  sent  to  the  House  of  Lords  it  was  at 
once  rejected  by  the  overwhelming  majority  of  419  to 
41    (September  8,  1893). 

Since  the  nation  received  the  news  with  apathy  and  a 
general  election  had  been  held  the  previous  year,  Glad- 
stone did  not  deem  it  wise  to  dissolve  parliament,  and 
make  an  appeal  to  the  country  against  the  Lords;  but 
decided  to  retain  office  and  proceed  at  once  to  the  con- 
sideration  and  passage  of  other  Liberal  measures,   de- 
manded  by   his   party.      An   Employers'    Liability   Bill, 
which  made  certain  employers  of  labor  responsible  for 
injuries  sustained  by  their  servants,  and  a  Parish  Coun- 
cils  Bill,   which  proposed  to   establish   elective   councils 
for  parishes  in  England  and  Wales,  thus  extending  the 
system  of  local  government  begun  in   1888   to  smaller 
areas    than    counties    and    giving    agricultural    laborers 
a  share  in  the  management  of  their  affairs  were  taken  up. 
The  second  became  law  but  the  other  he  abandoned  when 
the   Lords    had    succeeded    in    inserting   a    clause    that 
allowed  employers  to  **contract  out"  from  the  benefits  of 
the  act.     In  March,  1894,  the  aged  Premier  announced 


i8o 


ICii  inland'}   Progress 


that  he  must  lay  dowa  Ac  burden  of  office.    He  was  now 

ciL^istv-fniir  vcars  of  age,  eyesii^lir  ajuj  hearing  were  fail- 
Hi^,  and  tfie  responsibility  of  govcrniricrit  he  wished  to  lay 
cm  V  r uz  r  shoulders.  The  approximate  cause  ot  1 1> 
rcsignit  uii  wa^  Ins  strong  objection  to  an  increase  of 
]j2h_.K)0  pounds  in  the  naval  estimates  over  the  ex- 
n  n,j  ru  e  f  the  previous  year.  In  his  last  parliamen- 
t  irv  tkH\er anci ,  a  simple  announcement  that  the  minor 

I 


!;  i:v^c-   nia  h'    .( 


>!*    k    .:iru.S 


Bill  ^n    the  Peers 


wou 


;  I   ,  i  , 


i'    l.oraa-    v= 


n[l\     tiU:    [Ms:^ 


.      u  i 

"ive 


»»  6 


of    K     ••■     .  as."  °      H 

V      i  I  .  '     .  '       it      111'.       V  .  ;  J  .  -    ,      i  1  -   - 

if  *  t 


:'••*.;■•    '        ' .  '  ■     "!p,<  -'ran  !  t!i 

ca!  <jaa?!"a"  Ji  .!ar;t' j_  "  ,  '  '  i 
actifi^  iinwisaiv  m  h]'n:'rsu\[i  -^. ■■  ''^i'^Aiir. 
laws  desired  In"  tair  1  hj:u-/  .a  v^ommorv:^,  t- 
differences  rai-^^i  !v:avir.^:^  Ui.  ra  could  a..f  ,-;M->:ur.  ;a.a 
!nu>r  '*go  forward  t-  an  issued'  in  whicri  tac:  w^ -,  wi'^awnt 
would  take  !    •■       '  '  .  '^-dlythe  -d..  rd  t^a;  n-a<:e 

,    ■    '         .      ^.d    at- 

'      V  e  eh  amber  would 

ri^jr  w.=  •     ■     '  o  ■       ■         '      '"   ^nd  testa- 

v:.  Hi  I"   tat    'j^^- .'■  «>^  lii-iii  ^^ iw>  laid  ^i*  "  ommons 

since  tlie  viaji^jr-,  if  not  the  elder,   I'ita.        Uii  tcndeririii 
jii^    rw-eo'-  '     Queen  Her   M  ••   « 

Lu'  '  K    M.  aw  ■,  1  .-.--•    ^linister,  not  t  .  -  ■  ■■-■'- 

sta)nw  witii  whose  adxaineed  liheralisrn  she  tiad,    ■• 
in   idili  syrnpathv  aiu,]  whom  sht;   uas  awfi/oa    . 
have   retire.      idw   "Gran.l   ^  '^l\    Ma  =  e^"    v^:w;: 
Lord  Salisbury  spoke  of  a  .       a.  ;i.u5v  > 

intellect   e\aw   devoted   to   -a  '  i     '*'   the  ^*    ' 

IdirHwav  ra.t  w   (  !  ^>-/i  -airiu     '  -  '-i^"'^ 

after   liis   withviraw.d,    w-ai    public  liic,   ^)n.^ 
I  B  <:/  H , 


't     lucu 


01, 


^)     ^V> 


SaHsbury's  Second  and  Gladstone's  Fourth  Minist?  \  i8l 


REFERENCES 


I. 
2. 

3. 
4. 


Paul:  History  of  Modem  England,  Vol.  5,  p.  loi. 
Paul:  History  of  Modern  England,  Vol.  5,  p.  138. 
Hazen:  Europe  Since  181 5,  p.  498. 
Paul:  History  of  Modem  England,  Vol.  5,  p.  199. 
Paul:  History  of  Modern  England,  Vol.  5,  p.  256. 


:i 


CHAPTER  XIV 

TTli    MiMblRlKS  OF  ROSEBt RY,  1 894-1 895, 
5  iLISBURY,  1895-1902,  AND  BALFOUR, 

1902-1905 

When  (ilavlsti)nc  in  1894  tendered  his  resignation  to 
Queen  \  icturii.  partly  on  account  of  the  infirmities  of 
age,  failure  of  eyesight  and  hearing,  and  partly  on  ac- 
count ol  liis  obiection  to  larger  naval  expenditures,  Lord 
Rosebery  was  invited  by  the  Sovereign  to  head  the  gov- 
ernment. His  ministry  was  brief  (March,  1894-June, 
i^oO,  and  Without  large  achievements.  Though  dis- 
tiiiLruislic  d  IS  a  writer  and  orator,  and  possessed  of  fine 
Itcraiv  ability  and  artistic  taste,  the  Premier  lacked 
}  olituai  experience.  He  had  never  been  a  member  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  nor  did  he  have  well  thought 
out,  settled  convictions  as  to  governmental  policy.  He 
did  not  hue  tiiu  full  support  of  his  party.     Heading  a 

<  I     V        '     S  1 

5.  J  I,  V   I  Lit  1,1 

l^ihtv   u'! 


(,  I  L 


i  I  I 


and  dispirited  Government''  he  had  responsi- 

r   i>ower.     The  best  legislative  work  of  his 

in    \  as  the  Budget  t  1   1894.     This  instituted 

i  iiutes  on  real  anil  ;    r^onal  property  passing 

It  imposed  assessm^         varying  from  i  to  8 

according    to    the    value    of    the    estate,    and 

iito  the  Treasury  the  sum  of  4,000,000  pounds. 

Idtorts  iiKuk   In  p        a  bill  for  the  Disestabhshment  of 

the  Churcil  in   xWi],--  and  lo  ^arry  an  Evicted  Tenants 

Rill  for  Ira.'laiid  were  unsuccessful.     Defeated  during  tlie 

session  ot  1895  on  a  minor  amendment  to  the  army  esti- 

182 


^'racluat  c 
at  d--'tii 

per 
I 


)rt)umit 


a««*fei«»ii»»wirfi™.af«!Sfe."^--  ;.-»'--»*S-ftaWW«..iWi9*i«UJ4-»«, 


Minis  fries  of  Rosebery,  Salisbury,  and  Balfour      183 

mates  the  disheartened  Cabinet  realized  that  it  was  mak- 
ing- no  e^enuine  progress  and  resigned  June  21,  1895. 

In  the  i^rcneral  election  that  followed  the  Conservatives 
and  I  d  eral  Unionists  won  a  majority  of  152  seats  over 
the  vj  idstonian  Liberals  and  Irish  Nationalists.  The 
verdict  at  the  polls  reflected  the  rift  Gladstone  had  made 
in  his  party  by  his  last  Home  Rule  bill;  and  showed  that 
the  country  was  with  the  House  of  Lords  on  that  pro- 
posal. Evidently  their  defeat  of  the  measure  was  popu- 
lar. The  Conservatives  and  Liberal  Unionists  were  able 
to  get  together  because  the  former  were  beginning  now  to 
show  democratic  tendencies  and  the  latter  imperialistic. 
The  reins  of  state  were  again  placed  in  the  hands  of 
Lord  Salisbury,  the  Conservative  leader.  In  forming 
his  government  he  placed  some  of  the  most  important 
offices  in  the  hands  of  prominent  Liberals.  Hartington 
was  made  President  of  the  Council;  Lansdowne,  Secre. 
tary  for  War;  Chamberlain,  Colonial  Secretary;  and 
Goschen,  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  This  was  Salis- 
bury's third  ministry.  It  extended  from  June,  1895, 
to  July,  1902,  and  during  it  foreign  affairs  were  to  the 
fore. 

The  ministry's  record  in  domestic  legislation  was  not 
extraordinary  and  may  be  quickly  told.  The  Agricultural 
Rating  Act  of  1896,  ''a  piece  of  class  legislation,'*  low- 
ered the  assessment  of  land  and  gave  1,000,000  pounds 
in  relief  of  rates,  a  relief  amounting  to  about  one  shilling 
per  acre.  The  Workmen's  Compensation  Act  of  1897 
increased  the  workingman's  opportunity  of  enforcing 
claims  against  his  employer  in  case  of  injury  or  accident, 
but  workmen  were  allowed  to  contract  out  of  the  provi- 
sions of  the  law  and  certain  classes  of  labor  such  as 
domestics  and  farm  hands  were  excluded  from  its  bene- 


184 


E n  glands  Progress 


fits.  The  Goi'ernment  of  i.^ifidnn  Act  of  1899  created 
sixteen  \''irtually  independent  fnui)h„u^:u.,r:i,'s  ',;  the  area 
of  the  London  C'oiintv  Council's  ii:o\uooo!0  at  but  it  left 
to  the  old  Citv  of  L.ondon  cor|'H)ratiOfi  its  privileges. 
Hie  Voluntary  Schools  Bill  of  1 897  increased  the  grant 
of  rnoncv  to  schools  not  under  public  control.  In  190 1 
was  establishio,,]  a  fioaiol  of  ^du(^:lO^>^  rfoir  took  over  the 
work   of   .crtadi     .    .    o'       •       .  -   with  the  pur- 

pose i)t    oa/'  '•-  a  „  '      -^     ;  i   the  ele- 

nieritan'  tdiicataiiial  svoU-ni  as  \\a:ll  as  of  vaHadiaating 
better  the  work  oi  tin;  racai:a!\'  and  secondary  schools.^ 
Important  were  twc?  naa,:..aaa:,  0)r  Ireland:  the  one  of 
1899  establishing  a  Department  of  Agriculture  and  1  ccfi- 
nical  Instructaaa  the  other  the  Local  Government  \ct 
of  1898  that  established  popularly  elected  County  Coun- 
cils. Beneficial  wai  c  introduction  in  1898  of  a  penny 
postage  between  the  fiome  land  and  most  of  the  depend- 
encies cd  the  hoiipire, 

Notable  was  tiic  development  in  imperialism.  Closer 
union  hetweea  1  iigiand  and  the  Colonies  was  constantly 
and  ably  advocated  by  Mr.  Chamberlain,  the  interesting 
Colonial  Secretary.  In  1897  was  celebrated  the  **Diamond 
jubilee"  markirii^  the  sixtieth  vear  of  the  rule  of  Queen 
\ dctarat         c  a  gathered  the  premiers  of  the  self- 

gc    caa  ,;   ac;  >,  delegates  from  the  royal  colo- 

nies, and  rcfiresent.Ho  cs  from  India,  M -a  Chamberlain 
used  the  opportunitv  ta  as^e!nl)le  \n  conference  foremost 
statesncn  from  various  quarters  of  the  F  ipire  for  con- 
sultation and  discussion  concerninpf  the  weighty  matters 
ot  inipeiaal  lieicnse,  colonial  union  aca,!  commercial  regu- 
hitions  lie  necessity  and  mutual  benefits  of  drawing 
closer  the  gtcccrrHnentad  Wc:,  ihat  bound  together  the  scat- 
tered pa  Its  of  the  hhnpire  were  recognized  and  empha- 


i&ia,.usi.-*iif*^i!« 


Mm:.^ tries  of  Rosebery,  Salisbury,  and  Balfour     185 

sized  Jis  well  as  the  justice  and  wisdom  of  all  parts  of 
the  imperial  dominion  sharing  the  burden  of  imperial 
defense.  But  no  general  agreement  as  t  >  state  policy 
on  these  questions  was  arrived  at.  Due  i-^\  Mr,  Chani- 
berlain's  plans  for  bringing  about  a  closer  federal  on  ot 
the  self-governing  colonies  with  England  w  e 

a  svstem  of  preferential  tantts  within  the  \  -paw  ;n 
tia  i  uiomai  conference  were  sounded  the  -  :  of 
t^  ted  tariff  controversy  that  took  K,c  !i\i 

or  SL\  years  later  and  that  proved  a  .  f  the 

fall  of  the  Unin  ^  a  -nment  in  1905.  10  :  aa  li 
significance  also  u  sage  by  the  F 

ment   in    1900    c  a     ian   Commc  r       .d  :  r. 

ihe  new  federal  stale,  v.  a  a  an,  aino-anted  f^-  ^^  '  "■"  ■  .  a- 
cral  to  represent  the  Sove      ^n,  a  Sena  .. 

gates  from  the  incorporat       states  and  a  I  a     >- 

resentatives  elected  by  the  people  came  into  bd        f    1- 

uarv  T.    TOOT. 

1    e  foreign  affairs,  which  occupied  the  attention  of 

t?      aovernment,  concerned  Armenia,  Crete,   \  cnezuela, 

i    I  at,  Afghanistan,  I  e  pt  and  the  Transvaal.     In  the 

4,  1895  a  a'  occurred  horrible  massacres 

i  Christian-  Dy  the  i  uiixs,.  The  Sultan  coun- 
tennnccd  \i  he  did  not  instigate  the  murderous  work  on 
the  ground  that  these  Christians  were  anarchists  and 
revolutionists  trv  w  to  undermine  his  throne.  As  many 
as  ioUjOoo  of  thi  were  killed  in  these  years.  When 
a  group  o!    Ac  1   retaliation  had  succeeded  in 

August,  ica  n  dynamiting  some  buildings  in  Con- 
stantinople anJ  a  w^  the  IJ  a  a  an  Bank  there  were 
murdered  5,000  of  th  in  the  streets  of  that  one  city. 
Loud  and  vehement  v  he  denunciations  of  the  bar- 

barities of  the  Turk  tiu,.oc   years   all  over  Europe   and 


i86 

espcctallv  m   I'.ujj 

rouse     llis     rrr-j'-fr' 

o!    l-'ranrc,   !  :  S 
on    the   Sult.m    It- 


Enq!(jtur<    Proijrr^s 


land  wlu  re  ( iladstone  tried  in  vain  to 


to   take  ind 


.  %  ■-,  ■  >  t-n 


^ent  action  in  behalf 

ade  by  the  consuls 

.  r  ioint  pressure 


VVi 


•  ^  rutins 


refo 


rms. 


But  this  method  of  correcting  the  abuses  was  ineffectual. 
Russia  st()od  out  firmlv  against  the  use  of  any  coercive 

men  sure  ir^unst  the  Sue  fearing  that  such  interfer- 
ence hv  .  ^  he  great  Powers  might  issue  in  erecting 
"a  new   ' '     j  .  i  Armenia."     The  so-called  Concert 

of  flowers  rc\i\eiJ  hv  ^^\\>\mr\  for  tiic  purpose  of  super- 
vising the  pr  rii^e  1  reforms  in  the  disturbed  area  was 
unsuccessful.  It  lacked  force.  M  than  external 
moral  jnessure  needed  to  ch.uig^  u.c  political  meth- 

ods e>f  the  Turk  ■     •  M)vernment. 

In  the   rising  Christians  of  Crete  against  the 

Sultar  s  misrule  _,^j  and  in  the  Graeco-Turkish  War 
of  !  Kij  whih  L!;re\v  out  of  the  Greeks^  support  of  the 
Cretans  in  their  eflort  to  win  independence  for  their 
islanl,  a  ilifterc  iit  line  was  taken  by  Salisbury  and  a  bet- 
ensueiL     The  demnnd  of  the  Powers  thin  the 


ter  res 


Li  1  I 


1  ret  in  I  h rhythms  should  have  a  share  in  their  gov- 
erniiient  wns  foHoweil  hv  the  act  of  surrounding  the 
isiand  pr  eiiptly  With  their  ileets.^  1  he  bombardment 
of  Canclii  by  the  British  and  the  threat  of  single-handed 
intervention  led  to  the  evacuation  of  Crete  by  the  Turks. 
Prince  deoi^e  of  dreece  was  made  governor  of  the 
ishinJ   n  .«.  1R98.     Hie  Greeks  benefited  also 

ffi^ni   ^l'  ^    u  r  ence.     In   1897  ^^  secured  for 

rherri  when  det'ca'i.r;  in  their  fight  better  terms  than 
the  'i'urks  were  ai       st  inclmed  to  yield. 

f  he  \  ene/uehifi        *     versy  arose  out  of  the  fact  that 
the    Repubhe   oi    \'fru:na-L.L  laid   claim  to  all  the  land 


T    \ 


Ministries  of  Rosebery,  Salisbury,  and  Balfour 

which  had  been  given  to  Spain  by  the  bull  of  Pope  Alex- 
ander VI  granted  in  1492  when  dividing  the  newly 
discovered  world  between  Portugal  and  Spain  though 
some  of  this  land  had  been  gained  in  18 14  by  Great 
Britain  from  I  lulland  and  was  now  a  part  of  British 
Guiana.  The  President  of  the  United  States,  Grover 
Cleveland,  seemed  inclined  to  support  Venezuela  in  the 
boundary  dispute  as  against  England:  and  t  a  king  the 
stand  that  encroachments  here  on  the  part  of  Great 
Britain  would  be  contravening  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  he 
declared  his  readiness  to  oppose  such  advance  with 
armed  force.     He  demanded  of  England  that  the  - 

ter  should  be  submitted  to  a  board  of  arbitratio  i 

that  England  should  promise  beforehand  that  she  would 
abide  by  whatever  decision  the  board  reached.  The  Brit- 
ish  nation  did  not  at  all  relish  Cleveland's  peremptori- 
ness  and  there  was  some  heated  feeling  and  passionate 
war-like  talk.  But  the  self-control,  cool-headedness,  and 
good  judgment  of  Salisbury  warded  off  trouble  and 
brought  the  matter  after  a  few  months  to  a  happy  issue. 
Ignoring  the  threat,  assured  of  the  justice  of  his  course 
and  seeing  that  the  House  of  Commons  desired  the  dis- 
pute arbitrated,  he  finally  accepted  the  American  pro- 
posal of  adjudication  which  he  at  first  had  rejected. 
Two  British  and  two  United  States  judges  and  a  Rus- 
sian jurist  formed  the  arbitration  tribunal  which  in  Oc- 
tober, 1899,  rendered  a  verdict  quite  favorable  tu  Rnpr- 
land  grving  her  pretty  nearly  everything  she  claimed. 

Since  the  Venezuelan  controversy  nothing  has  hap- 
pened to  interrupt  the  feeling  of  amity  and  concord  ex- 
isting between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  A 
sign  of  this  goodwill  was  the  new  agret  made  con- 

cerning the  building  of  an  isthmian  canal  ...         iig  the 


1 88 


England's 


>      i   -■•    c  •    /      «      „ '    .  * 


Atlantic  an  1  Pacific  Oceans      Tn  1901  the  Clayton-Bul- 

wer  treaty  between  f'.nt^kuiil  and  the  United  States 
formed  in  i  8  qo  was  annulled  and  substituted  by  the  Hav- 

l^auncetotc  treaty,      'iiw   fo?-fn,er  agreement  was  to  the 

effect  that  the  "twr^  ivnviTs  siiouid  icmuly  pfuarantee  the 
neutralitv  of  aaiv  eaiial  thev  constructed  aciais^  the  isth- 
mus and  that  ruher  nations  should  have  a  right  to  sub- 


S  C  t  1  "0  c 


to  the  treLttv 
vided  for  the  laiiteo 
antee  its  neutraJ;rv. 
to  the  pledge  aiivi 
tioris.  It  is  [deasifi 
WAS  had  01  se\'eral 
centurv  between,  tie; 
cerning  the  erwner-' 
allowed  by  t.<e'iu;e--= 
settled  bv  tiie   (  ier;n 


?■  liuw  chose,''  ^  1>i:  iatter  pro- 
re  te^-;  ah,)ne  tf:^  l)uihJ  it  a,nd  to  Sfuar- 
Nrs  other  nation  lieeaioe  a  party 
.One a    wa-    said    aizconst    fortifica- 


t  i  'I    f 


tu  ae 


r  f 


f) 


.  s  (.. 


it  amicable  settlement 
•us  that  arose  during  the 
ries.  One  dispute  con- 
tlie  island  of  San  Juan  was 
nt  of  both  governments  to  be 
h^mperor  who  in  1872  gave  the 
island  to  the  l/nited  Ntates.  The  Alaska  boundary  con- 
tro\'ersv,  which  aruse  nut  of'  t?u,*  indefinite  terms  in  tfie 
purchase  treat\  made  by  \hv  United  States  with  Alaska 
in  1867.  was  setrk  1  satisfactorily  by  a  board  of  six 
arbiters,  ddie  centurv  long  wauingle  concerning  Ameri- 
can and  Caruidian  fisiierv  rinhts  was  adjusted  finally  by 
the  decision  u\  tiie  !  lague  IVibunal  in  1910. 

In   1898  Salisburv  liad  to  eive  special  attention  to  the 
Far   Idistern   situatinii,.       I  vn,    condetions   ni   China  made 

;    niigfn   possibly  become 

of   itb    territory  might  be 

;•■   powers.     After  the  smali 

defeated    the    Chinese    ni 

^en  crnnients   of  Europe   on 

jht    aUii   gnt    fnutd'iold   i)n   the 

.     .     ^rO    Inr    1  liernselves    re- 


t  It  •  1  f 


It    a|:^peai 
disinernoeri'd 
di\icko:i  rat 
nation,    japei 
the    War   tet 


.1. 

o  •  i  • 


i  ,i 


..h 


l8C)4.     hC 


one  pretext  or  areOiu- 
Chinese    scacoast    .lud 


Ministries  of  Rosebery,  Salisbury,  and  Balfour     189 

spective  spheres  of  influence  and  trade,     in  November, 
1897,  Germany  seized  the  port  of  Kiau-Chau  on  the  Shan- 
tung promontory  assigning  as  her  reason  lor  this  action 
the  desire  to  obtain  satisfaction  for  the  murder  of  cer- 
tam  German  missionaries  in  the  adjacent  territory.     The 
seizure   was   legalized    a    few   months   later   through    a 
treaty,  by  which  this  port  and  the  adjacent  territ.e  v  was 
leased  to  Germany  for  a  term  of  ninety-nine  years  with 
the  right   to  construct  railways,   establish   fortifications, 
Station     troops,     and     undertake     various     enterprises 
throughout  the  whole  province  of  Shantung.     Russia  im- 
mediately  followed  Germany's   move.      First   obtaining 
permission  in  December,   1897,  to  winter  her  squadrons 
at  Port  Arthur  in  the  Liaotung  peninsula,  she  shorHv 
effected  an  agreement  with  China  by  which  Port  Arthur, 
Talienwan   and  the   adjacent  territory  were  leased   lor 
a  term  of  twenty-five  years  with  the  understanding  that 
the  lease  could  be  subsequently  extended  longer  by  mu- 
tual consent.     France  a  year  or  two  later  got  a  port 
on  the  Kuang-Chau  Bay,  and  Japan  obtained  the  pledge 
from  China  that  none  of  the  territory  of  the  province 
of   Fukien  opposite  the  Island  of  Formosa  should  be 
alienated  to  any  power  other  than  Japan. 

Salisburv  at  the  first  attempted  to  prevent  these  terri- 
torial aggressions  on  China  and  sought  only  to  main- 
tain commercial  privileges  for  England  but  failing  to 
restraiit  other  governments  he  changed  his  policy.  In 
1898  in  the  interest  of  maintaining  the  balance  of  power 
in  China  he  occupied  the  port  of  Wei-haiA\ H  w^hirh 
faces  Port  Arthur  on  the  other  side  oi  tht  . 
and  in  addition  secured  from  China  the 
portion  of  the  Yang-Tse  basin  should  be 
leased    or    ceded    to    another    power.       In      .jdci 


u\l    ill    I   : 


190 


England's  Progress 


strcmithcn   uid  bciier  to  defend  her  settlement  at  Hong- 


L 


Ron  a    England  soon   secured   the   lease   also   of  a   piece 
of   tlie    adjoining  mainland.     These    encroachments   of 

Kuropcan    iKitions     ni    Chinese   territory,   the   hatred   of 


c\  is  an  I  strong  opposition  to  innovations  and 
.  undertaken  by  the  young  Emperor  and  liberal 


representing     the     so-called    Western     Culture 
broiK^lu    iihiiut  a   revolution   in    China.     The   aged  and 
const!  \  alive    F.mpress    Dowager    succeeded    m    seizmg 
aiiaiii  sii|)renu  authority:  and  at  the  same  time,  possibly 
with   the   iri)\ernrnent's   connivance,   arose  the   **Boxers," 
a  banii   oi  eonsihrators  who  sought  to  run   out  of  the 
coiinnv  eii  murder  foreigners  and  native  Christians.     On 
lune   2,    1900,  the  British  Legatlun  at  Pekin  filled  with 
lull    refugees,    anmn^    them    the    foreign   mission- 
aries, was  Ir    eged  In    tiu    Boxers.     A  military  force  of 
20,000  lueh  r  cuinniMid  of  Count  von  Waldersee  com- 
posed    t   raini  s  fnain  the  llnited  biatcb,  Japan,  Russia, 
I  r   n  e  u  u!  «  u  r  iiany  was  sent  to  raise  the  siege  which 
w!.  aceompllshed  in  August,    1900.     The  head  of  the 
antetoreiizn  movement  Prince  Tuan,  wiio  had  been  sup- 
ported by  some  of  the  imperial  troops,  was  banished; 
the    leadini^    floxers    were   punished;   measures    for    the 
flit    -    sea.ritv  of  foreigners  were  obtained;  and  in  final 
s, I  lenient  a  war  indemnity  of  about  $330,000,000  was 
fureeh    ill  die  country.    The  ''open  door"  policy  in  trade 
was  also  directly  agreed  to  by  the   i'owers.  an  achieve- 
ment in  the  main  (^f  Mi'    T^^h:^   11. :V,  the   LiuLcd  biates 
Seeretarv      f   State.       1  n    1-1  and,   which   had   se- 

cured alnan  >'^  per  cent  ui  Uui\d\  .foreign  trade,  in  as 
strong  i  .  nerciai  position  as  ever;  but  the  fact  taai 
Germane  Russia,  England's  rivals,  had  gotten  terri- 

tornii  tu   :        is  in  China  was  not  pleasing  to  the  English 


Ministries  of  Rosebery,    ^lUshury^  and  Balfour     191 

public   and    for   this   reason   Salisbury's   Chinese   policy 
was  not  considered  by  many  altocrether  suecessful 

Oil  the  Norfh-West  fronfh  r  oi  India  occurred  in 
1895  and  1897  formidable  uprisings  of  some  of  the 
wild  border  tribes  adjoining  the  independent  buffer  state 
of  Afghanistan.  The  relief  of  Chitral,  a  British  out- 
post that  had  suffered  attack,  was  gained  only  after  a 
prolonged  siege  of  a  month  and  a  half,  and  the  sup- 
pression of  the  insurrection  in  the  Tirah  valley  was  ac- 
comphshed  (1898)  only  after  a  long  difficult  and  costly 
campaign  necessitating  the  sending  of  a  military  expe- 
ditionary force  of  60,000  men. 

An  important  feat  of  Salisbury's  ministry  was  the  final 
conquest  of  the  Soudan.     From  1885  to  1896  the  Brit- 
ish Government  maintained  a  defensive  attitude,   w'th^ 
drawing  Its  troops  from  Soudanese  territory  and  holding 
only  frontier  outposts  at  Suakin  and  Wady  Haifa.     But 
having  trained  Its  Egyptian  army  by  English  officers  Into 
a  more  efficient  force,  and  having  built  a  military  rail- 
way from  Wady  Haifa  to  Abu  I  Tamed  the  government 
undertook  again  to  subdue  the  country  sending  In  a  con- 
siderable British  Army.     The  conquest  of  the  Soudan 
was  felt  to  be  necessary  to  secure  Egypt  from  attacks 
from  that  quarter,  to  restore  national  honor  Impaired 
by  former  defeat  and  to  *'avenge  Gordon."     T-  '^     *      ~ 
ber,  1896,  the  Anglo-Egyptian  army  occupied  D 
and  In  September,  1897,  Berber  and  In  September,  i 
Khartoum.     In  1898  the  Dervishes  were  defeated  at  Xt~ 
bara,  and  the  K^iallfa's  army  was  routed  at  Omdurman  by 
Kitchener  with  a  loss  of  11,000  of  its  men.     In  Novem- 
ber,  1899,  the  Khalifa  himself  was  slain.     These  rapid 
and  steady  successes  ^^restored  British  self-respect  and 
gave  Egypt  the  security  necessary  for  internal  develop. 


192 


rncrit. 


England's  Progress 
January,  1899,  the  Soudan  was  declared  to 


I 


i( 


unucr    till' 


n 


f  ■,  ■    t 


free  tri 
trsini]  n 
ti\-c   n!    1   n:i} 

1  ilC   ISSlIi 

to  Sa!isl)iiry. 
niihrar\'   lor. 


Ml!  sovereignty  of  Great  Britain  and 
ade  a!u!  en m me rci a  1  privileges  were  declared 
t  i  lis  and  nations.     The  erection  at  Khar- 


It  ue  as  a  memorial  of  Gordon  was  indica- 

r  s*   ncil  policy  of  rule. 


.c 


■1  -I  ,  r 

-•  i  I.  *■  :i:-_,^ 


h     i  incident  in  1898  was  a  credit 

Alajur  Alar^JiarKJ  in  uunmand  of  a  sniuli 
from  the  Congo  had  hoisted  the  French 
a.  a  station  on  the  Nile  300  miles  above 
Khartnuiia  an  ait  which  1  norland  regarded  as  unfriendly 
since  It  threatened  the  control  of  that  important  river 
and  \  alkv  by  Great  Britain.  No  attack  was  made  on 
tl;  1  :  'a  i  tv  thoiip^h  the  English  troops  could  easily 
hi.      ;        i  em.     The  firm  and  positive  demand  of 

Tofv!  Sai    ;     ry  on  the  French  Government  proved  suffi- 
cient.    I  ranee  issued  an  order  to  Marchand  to  retire. 

( )[  niiast  >erious  character  was  the  South  African  diffi- 
eai tv  Witii  the  discovery  of  gold  on  the  Witwatersrand 
in  1S56  there  beG:an  a  rapid  immigration  of  adventurous 
foreiirners  intn  the  "''ra^^-a-aa,!.  These  trades-men,  min- 
ers, hilHarer.  technical  experts  and  managers  who  had 
CO! re  to  work  ihc  mines  were  termed  "Outlanders^' ;  and 
among  tin  se  "birds  of  passage"  were  to  be  found  repre- 
sentatives of  all  races  under  the  sun,  though  the  British 
element  was  \  astly  predominant.  Ih  1892  these  stran- 
gers if!  tlie  Dutch  Republic  numbered  77,000  and  ex- 
ceeded the  liners  three  to  one.  Since  the  Conservative 
Boi  fb  aeui  J  hh  President  Kriiger  feared  the  political 
conscquenees  ot  this  increasing  foreign  pupuiauun  they 
(hd  Hi  t  ae  la]  them  equal  civil  and  political  privileges 
^vi-h  tru an  a!   t  t  on  the  contrary  discriminated  against 

theni    in   iiiatterai   of    enfranchisement,   representation   in 


Ministries  of  Rosebery,  Salisbury,  and  Balfour     193 

legislative  bodies,  education,  taxation  and  the  like.  When 
the  Outlanders  in  1892  formed  the  Transvaal  National 
Union  for  the  purpose  of  airing  their  grievances  and  im- 
proving their  condition  and  made  appeal  for  aid  directly 
tn  Great  Britain,  Kriiger  began  to  curry  favor  wiiii  i  lc- 
many  and  lluiland  and  to  import  secretly  large  quanti- 
ties of  ammunition  and  arms.  Since  the  Dutch  claimed 
that  their  Republic  was  a  free  and  independent  state  and 
were  ready  to  fight  for  their  contention  while  EnglaiuJ 
claimed  that  the  state  was  under  her  sovereignty  it  was 
inevitable  that  conflict  sooner  or  later  would  come.  In 
1899  the  Boer  War  began,  the  first  contest  with  white 
men  that  England  had  had  since  the  Crimean  War. 

England  was  unprepared,  lacking  troops,  ammunition, 
maps,  artillery  and  transports.     The  British  underesti- 
mated the  strength  of  their  opponents,  and  were  igno- 
rant of  the  Boers'  military  preparations,  remarkable  cour- 
age, excellent  marksmanship  and  ability  in  irregular  war- 
fare.    At  first  victory  after  victory  went  to  the  Boers — 
Stormberg,  Magersfontein,  Colenso,  and  Spionkop.  They 
besieged  the  British  in  Ladysmith  and  Kimberley;  and 
their   splendid   fighting  under   the   able   generalship   of 
Cronje,  DeWet  and  Louis  Botha  excited  the  astonishment 
and  admiration  of  the  world.     Their  tenacious  resistance 
lasted  nearly  three  years.     Not  until  overwliehned  by 
vastly  superior  numbers  did  they  yield.     F   i^dand  raised 
her  active  army  forces  to  250,000,  adding  re  nforcements 
of  regulars  or  yeomanry  and  of  troops  from,  tlie  colonies. 
From   India,  Canada,  Cape  Town,  and  Australia  came 
military  aid,  over  450,000  men  being  sent  by   h    inland 
to  South  Africa  during  the  conflict.     Lord  Rob^e.^  was 
the  Commander-in-Chief.     In  the  closing  months  of  the 
conflict  under  Lord  Kitchener  the  number     '  England's 


194 


England''  Progress 


soldiers  in  South  Africa   to  that  of  the  Boers  was  as 

twciit)-  lij  one.  Ijiil  of  tlie  guerilla  warfare  was  only 
made  by  vrccumi^  hlock-hoiiscs  at  intervals,  erectiiiiz 
iKirhcJ-wirc  entanglements  and  making  a  long  series  of 
"i{ri\cb.  i  )ii  June  i,  1902,  the  peace  terms  were  signed 
at  W'reeniging,  b\-  which  hotli  tiie  <  ^ranize  Free  Siau;  and 
tiic  'rrans\aial  ins!  their  independenee  and  wrw  made 
portions  td"  ra.;  Id  in-O:  1  ar.^:ire.  The  struggle  added  to 
I-inolanvld  inttiona!  debt  160  millions. 

Enghiiid  >  treat  !U!!!  of  the  conquered  was  generous 
and  liber  1  M  n  )  on  easy  terms  was  furnished  for  re- 
IniiKJino  iheii-  economic  life,  the  largest  sort  of  free- 
dom was  given  n  their  local  government;  and  some  of  the 
alilest  leaders  of  the  Boer  revolt  were  honoured  by  being 
re  s| -01  si  hie  offices  in  the  new  government;  e.g. 
Botha  \\a!N  made  Prime  Mmister  oi  the  fd'ans- 
\aod,  who  !!i  graeiodn  -. .  >  ^.snition  of  the  courtesy  "pre- 
senter] to  tile  i/ruwii  the  finest  jewel  in  the  world."  ^ 

justice,  necessity,  and  conduct  of  the  Boer 


ina  va;tl 


J  i  N 


A'"^ 


t , 


War  1:1  lis  on  among  members  of  the  Liberal  Party  was 
tjuite  divided  at  times.  Salisbury  noting  in  1900  the 
acute  ihssensiuns  among  his  political  opponents  and  being 
corilidenf  as  to  the  result  of  i  "Khaki  election/'  sud- 
denbv  i  1  lihe  midst  of  the  conflict  dissolved  ParUament 
and  ai)peaho,{  to  the  coiintrv  for  its  verdict  on  his  policy. 
I  !e  fad  the  pleasure  of  seeing  enough  Conservatives  and 
I  iltr  !   I   n  in  rned  to  give  his  coalition  ministry 

an  undnmnished  nmmritv.  At  the  conclusion  ul  the  war 
howe\er  In  the  summer  of  1902  on  account  of  failing 
heahi-  he  resigned  office.  The  premiership  fell  to  his 
nephew  Mr.  Arthur  Balfour.  A  year  later,  August  22, 
occuinwnJ  the  death  of  Salisbury. 


Ministries  of  Rosebery,  Salisbury,  and  Balfour    195 


Balfour's  ministry,  august  t902-december  1905 

Among  the  more  Important  legislative  activities  of  this 
ministry  were  the  Education  Act  (1902),  the  Irish  Land 
Act  (1903)  and  the  measures  for  reorganization  of  the 
Army  (1904).    The  Education  Act  abolished  the  School 
fo   irds,  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  County  and  Town 
Councils  the  control  of  primary  education  and  gave  to  the 
denominational  schools  support  from  the  tax  rates.     It 
provided  that  the  secular  education  in  these  denomina- 
tional schools  should  be  under  the  control  of  the  public 
authority.     Since  it  required  the  head  teacher  and  a  per- 
manent majority  of  the  managers  of  the  church  schools 
to  belong  to  the  denomination  and  since  most  of  these 
schools  belonged  to  the  Anghcan  Church  the  measure  was 
not  at  all  liked  by  the  Non-Conformists.     Their  hostility 
and  resistance  to  the  Act  was  not  without  effect  upon  the 
popularity  and  strength  of  Balfour's  ministry.    The  Irish 
Ted    \ct,  improved  by  an  amendment  in   1909,  made 
p   -  !  le  the  outright  purchase  by  tenants  of  their  hold- 
01^3     rom  landlords  by  the  government's  furnishing  the 
par  chase  money  needed.    The  tenant  was  allowed  to  re- 
turn the  loan  in  annual  installments  which  were  less  in 
amount  than  the  former  annual  rental  and  ran  over  a 
period  of  forty-nine  years.     The  ter  ants  had  received  hy 
earlier  land  acts  the  privilege  of  getting  purchase         o 
from  the  Treasury  for  acquiring  their  holdings,  it   r    t 
enough  always  to  bridge  the  chasm  between  the  price  the 
tenant  would  offer  and  the  price  the  landlord  would  take. 
The  new  law  made  possible  more  transfers  and  has  re- 
sulted in  Ireland  becoming  more  and  more  a  country  of 
free-holders.     Increase  of  land-owning  by  the  Irish 


196 


England  6  Progress 


been  attended  too  by  economic  and  educational  advance. 
!  Ill  a  run  reforms  gicu  .  ui  oi  the  unwelcome  facts 
re\calcd  it  ihe  outbreak  oi  t^ir  Rocr  War  concerning  the 
unprcparctlf  cs>.  inefficiency  and  general  defectiveness  of 
]  nglan  I  s  wliolc  military  department.  The  Commission 
of  intjinrv  appointcvl  by  the  (government  in  1902  to  in- 
vesrigatc  an  1  ri|)ort  on  the  country's  military  system  con- 
deniniPi  ijiispiuni^lv  the  methods  of  the  War  Office  and 
showed  that  a  liiDugiigoing  reorganization  was  needed. 
As  lilt:  n>  ih  <  !  the  work  of  a  War  Office  Recon^^nK^- 
t    ,     (  the   office   of   Commander-in-Chief  was 

done  a  wall  w\x\\  afuJ  control  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
an  Aiariv  lad  composed  of  four  military  members 
and  of  (  a  1  and  one  finance  member  whose  president 

re!  n\    for  War.     X  new  important  military 
(hanmittee  of  Imperial  Defense,  was  formed 
^'     d  (  f  which  was  the  Prime  Minister  and  under 


w  a  s  t  ri  c 
p ,.  ,. ...  I 


s. 


i.  X..         I  i  C 


whi all  waiN  a  s 


taff  ui  ten  or  more  military  and  naval  offi- 
cers, lutter  treatment  and  better  pav  was  provided  for 
the  prixate  soKhier  and  a  special  board  was  named  for 
controlnng  arni)  appointments.  At  the  same  time  im- 
provements were  made  in  the  naval  department.  Ob- 
solete bhi}  ^  vena  sent  to  the  scrap-heap,  the  method  of 
selectaiia  eadets  was  altered  and  plans  laid  for  a  steady 
enlariiaaiuait  of  da,  iku'V.  The  government'^  policy  ap- 
peared m  thr  (  awdo  \!  anorandum  of  1905  advising 
the  I  ud  hiiir  every  year  of  four  modern  dreadnaughts. 
*'linkeianii  \\\i\i  the  tariff,"  as  Americans  say,  seems  to 
have  aused  rite  fall  of  Balfour's  nnnistry.  In  1903  on 
returaaaa  f'r>aa'  a  \is;t  u^  ^outh  \v:'\ca.  the  Colon-el  '^-cvc- 
tar\a  Mr  laa  aberlain,  suddenly  and  with  rather  star- 
tlmg  eite. t  pnsented  in  a  speech  the  plan  of  employing  a 
pieici ential  tariff  scheme  as  a  means  for  binding  together 


Ministries  of  Rosehers,   Salisbury^  and  Balfour    197 

better  the  colonies  and  the  mother-land.  He  believed 
that  the  high  protective  systems  of  such  nations  as  the 

Linted  bteJes  and  luTmany  had  given  them  great  ad- 
vantages (  \er  free-trade  Enghind  in  allowing  them  to 
exclude  from  their  markets  1  ngland's  wares  while  en- 
joying the  right  and  practice  of  iieeha  dumping  their 
own  products  on  the  markets  of  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies.  He  held  that  industrial  and  commercial  condi- 
tions had  changed  radically  since  the  days  of  Peel,  Bright 
and  Cobden;  I'krn'sc  the  Colonial  ambitions  of  rival 
nations  and  the  comparative  manufacturing  and  mili- 
tary strength  of  different  countries;  and  that  the  intro- 
duction of  a  system  of  reciprocity  and  preferential  duties 
in  colonial  trade  would  benefit  the  whole  British  Empire. 
Such  a  plan  would  bring  industrial  prosperity  to  the  home- 
hand  and  hind  together  with  the  golden  bands  of  mutual 
commercial  advantage  all  parts  of  the  realm.  He  would 
not  tax  raw  materials  needed  for  English  factories  but 
he  would  place  moderate  tariffs  on  such  food  products 
as  grain,  flour,  butter,  cheese,  meats,  and  on  foreign  fac- 
tory wares.  He  would  reduce  somewhat  the  duties  levied 
on  the  table  comforts,  teas,  coffee,  sugar  and  cocoa. 

His  views  attracted  universal  attention  at  the  time  and 
no  end  of  discussion.  The  costs  and  indebtedness  in- 
curred in  the  war  just  ended,  the  general  business  de- 
pression, lack  of  employment,  jealousy  of  the  growing 
power  of  rival  nations,  and  the  spirit  of  imperialism  all 
tended  to  lend  interest  to  his  arguments  and  appeal.  But 
since  his  proposal  involved  raising  the  price  of  food  and 
contained  the  erroneous  implication  that  custom  revenues 
would  not  suffer  though  fewer  imports  were  allowed  he 
couhi  an  rieither  the  majority  of  his  fellow-members 
of  the  cabinet  nor  a  majority  of  the  public  to  accept  his 


198 


England\^  Progress 


views  and  leadership  in  the  matter, 
opposed   t  )   tfic    retaliatory  feature  of 

but  he  did  ii'^'    ia\ur   the   increased  tax 
bread.     The  idan  as  a  ^v! 


1  i  a  i 

t  !  1  ( > 


)ie  v\'as  rcirari 


^ur   was   not 
|)roposition; 

■c  people's 
the  Prime 

IMiriister  as  impracticable  and  inopportune.  He  finally 
i  !  I  fiamberlain  that  the  question  of  preferential 

tariffs  coiilil  iiDt  he  brought  up  during  the  existing  Par- 
liament and  made  the  suggestion  that  it  be  considered  at 
length  and  formulated  better  at  the  next  Colonial  Con- 

liTcnce.  Mr.  Chand^erlain  thereupon  reNiiine.,!  from 
the  Cahiiict.  Shortly  afte-  :'  '-  '-\.'al  nthcf  members 
of  tJiv   i  a;er;ia-  euit  al'-  ■■ ■    !<♦  sav  for  opposite 

c\'   were  im    iuxiuvVcrs  ot    I,  iianihcrlain   ^nit 


rca>nn,       1  n 

hell  tree-trade  prmciples.     They  became  dissatisfied  he- 
cause  Balfour  expressed  certain  fiscal  views  that  to  them 

sav  u Lire  1   a   bit  of  the  proposed  protective  programme. 
The    (  a[  nut   reconsiru  ted  with   less  capable  men  held 

and  waning  prestige  until 
uiis  and  divisions  in  his 


1  go; . 


re 


K^A.  .^»iw;»0-  K.J 


lulidwirivr  tJKit  iKij  arisen  n\Tr  not  only  the  tariff  ques- 
tion hut  o\er  problems  connected  with  education,  labor, 
and  the  aftermath  of  the  Boer  War  Balfour 
nf  ifiat  year  resigaevl  also.  He  hoped  that 
:  {  rals  would  not  be  able  to  form  a  mln- 
the  Conservatives  would  be  recalled 
h-  was  disap|)()intcd.  Sir  1  lenrv  C"a!nphe11- 
Bannerniafi,  Uie  foremost  laherai,  became  Prime  Min- 
ister and  fnianed  1  Cabinet  having  such  able  political 
leaders  a>  \s  juitfe  made  Chancellor  of  the  h  xchequer, 
and  Sir  I  J  v  :  i  y,  Foreign  Secretary.  When  in  Janu- 
ary, 1  /  Pi  ieiit  was  dissolved  and  appeal  made 
to  the  count r\  tur  bupport  of  the  Liberal  programme 
M-hieli   tlenianelev,!   "the   exclusion   of   Chinese  labor   from 


tfie    aw:   . 
in   Decern  he 
the  diSa"      ' 

istrv  a"  :  *  •■ 
to  P',n\a:r. 


Ministries    of  Rosehery,  Salisbury,  and  Balfour 


I  ^' '"' 


t  "  f 


the  Transvaal;  the  emendation  of  the  Education  Act 
in  the  interest  of  the  Non-Conformists;  the  reduction  and 
national  control  of  liquor  licenses;  and  sweeping  meas- 
ures for  social  and  industrial  betterment,"  the  party 
gained  the  grandest  victory  at  the  polls  and  the  greatest 
majority  in  i^ariiarncnt  won  since  the  election  following 
the  passage  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832. 


REFERENCES 


I. 
2. 

3. 
4. 

5. 


Edwards:  Notes  on  British  History,  Part  IV,  p.  1048. 
Edwards:  Notes  on  British  History,  Part  IV,  p.  978. 
Bassett:  United  States,  p.  815-816. 

Edwards:  Notes  on  British  History,  Part  IV,  p.  937-938. 
Pollard :  British  Empire,  p.  539. 


CHAPTER   XV 


MiXh-  f  K'lliS  OF  C  \Ml'H\  I  I  A<\\\\  RMW 


V  '■ 


^  AND  OF  ASQUITH  LP  'l\.)  1914 


A  new  epoch  of  reform  activity  was  opened  in  1906 

when  tfie  Conservatives  who  had  enjoyed  with  the  ex- 
ception of  three  years  under  Gladstone  and  Rosebery 
(1892-  I  >5;;)  111  uninterrupted  lease  of  power  for 
twenty  ycaih  w.  re  ousted  from  leadership  by  the  general 
election  of  that  vear.  The  returns  showed  378  Lib- 
erals, 53  I  alior  representatives  and  83  Irish  National- 
ists as  a^iifiht  i^i  Conservatives  and  25  Liberal  Union- 
ists A  few  of  the  Labor  and  Irish  members  were 
pledged  In  \  ote  independently  of  party  but  still  the  gov- 
ernment could  command  a  Liberal  and  Labor  majority 
over  all  other  groups  combined  of  about  134.  This  ma- 
jorit)  was  reduced  considerably  in  the  two  general  elec- 
tions of  M/i  ) — one  concerning  the  Budget  and  the  other 
concern  ;fia^  h  mi  ting  the  powers  of  the  House  oi  I  ords — 
so  that  the  Liberal  ministry  had  then  to  depend  on  the 
Irish    Na     aialist   vote    as   well   as   on   the   Labor   vote 


to    CnfiUi, 


aisiness." 


B  dd  we   n     spirit,  radical  and  progressive  were  the 

prill  i;ies  I  1  u  !  iberal  government  as  it  pressed  for- 
wardi  ii5  ineasurcb  ui  political  democracy  and  social  re- 
form led  first  bv  Sir  ITcnrv  C  T^^^p^ell-Bannerman,  Prime 
Minister  until  hiN  d  then  by  M  i    Asquith, 

his  successor  m  uiiut,  -u,  ,  ud  liy  his  fearless,  able 
CiianeeHnr  of  the  Fv-^-rqer  ■  Mr,,  I  J,iyd  George.   Among 

200 


Ministries  of  Campbell-Banner  man  and  Asquith    201 

the  foremost  subjects  dealt  with  were  Irish  Home  Rule, 
restriction  of  the  powers  of  the  House  of  Lords,  the  dis- 
estabHshment  of  the  Church  of  Wales,  the  reform  of  the 
taxing  system,  land  reform,  Workmen's  Compensation, 
Labor  Organizations,  Education  and  Child  Welfare, 
Idiu  ](  ver'^  Liability,  Old  Age  Pensions  and  National 


a  I  i  \1 


ore 


varied  program  wa»  necessitated  in 
I  a  I  Dy  the  nature  and  demands  of  several  ;tr(  ng 
ations  that  had  backed  the  Liberals  in  the  ele;> 
tion.  Support  had  come  from  the  United  Irish  League 
of  Great  Britain  that  denounced  the  Conservatives* 
long  rule  of  coercion  for  Ireland;  from  the  Independent 
Labour  Party,  a  moderate  socialistic  body  organized  by 
Keir  Hardie  in  1893:  from  the  Fabian  Society  formed 
m  the  early  eighties  and  led  by  Sydney  and  Beatrice  Wehh, 
G.  B.  Shaw  and  H.  G.  Wells  that  advocated  the  municipal 
or  national  ownership  of  land  and  industrial  capital; 
from  the  Social  Democratic  Federation  formed  in  1883 
demanding  the  state  maintenance  of  children  and  the 
provision  by  the  State  of  work  for  the  unemployed;  and 
from  tlie  Congress  of  Trade  Unions  held  not  long  be- 
fore the  election  representing  about  one  and  a  half  mil- 
lion of  organized  workers  which  favored  such  proposals 
as  the  nationalization  of  mines  and  railways,  municipal 
banking,  secular  education  in  the  state  schools  and  old  age 
pensrons.  Trade  Unions  sent  in  1906  about  half  a  hun- 
dred members  to  Parliament.  The  enactments  of  the 
Liberals  revealed  a  more  tender  regard  for  the  welfare 
of  the  workingman  than  for  the  interests  of  the  capitalist 
or  land-owner.  The  area  of  state  interference  in  indus- 
try was  enlarcred;  and  individualistic  methods  gave  place 
in  some  lines  to  collectivism  and  public  action.    The  pow- 


202 


England 5  Progress 


^5 


crs    ijf    denK)cr:,ic\"    were    consciDiislv    organized    for    ...^ 
purpose    ot    meeting    \antH,is    Noeial    needs.      Mr.    Alden 


iC. 


i( 


!       t  »  1 

i  I    i   ! 


1.1   i   \ 


The  DKv 

the  ijiK' 


s  that 

%  J 


well  expressed 
tfie  function  i^ 

Radical  c  f  totkiy  is  much  wider  in  sco|)e  tfiin  seemed 
possible  to  our  predecessors.  The  State  avowedly  claims 
tfie  right  to  ifiteriere  with  industrial  liberty  and  to  modify 
the  olil  eeoiKiiiiic  \  iew  i)\  trie  disposal  of  private  prop- 
erty. I  iberalism  recognizes  that  it  is  no  longer  possible 
to  aecept  tfie  \  ieu  that  all  men  have  an  equal  chance. 
.  .^  .  1  he  Liberal  asks  tbnt  such  economic  changes  shnll 
be  introduced  as  will  make  it  possible  for  every  man  r  > 
possess  a  minimum  of  security  and  comfort.  Property 
is  lie'  iHig  r  to  iiave  an  undue  claim;  great  wealth  must 
be  pref  u  e  1  to  bear  burdens  in  the  interests  of  the  whole 
community.  Our  social  system  must  have  an  ethical 
basis.'' 2  >\r  \  \vrv~\  Cainpbcll-Baiinerman  declared  "that 
underlying  every  proposal  of  his  government  would  be 
a  polici  of  Nocial  reconstruction  looking  toward  a  greater 
equah/  ition  oi  wealth,  and  the  destruction  of  the  op- 
pressi\e  mofiopolies  of  the  land  and  of  liquor."  M  . 
Ntated  'that  the  injustice  of  the  present  social 
S}.-  reriilered    a   popular  attack  upon  it   inevitable"; 

that  ''proper! \  vAvst  he  associated  in  the  minds  of  the 
masses  of  the  peoph-  with  the  ideas  of  reason  and  justice." 
Some  of  the  ameliorative  measures  of  the  Liberals  that 
coneerned  hdn, ir  conditions  and  the  care  of  children  'md 
cfepenikfus  weie  in  keeping  with  the  avowed  principles 
of  tfie  C  onser\an\cs  who  since  the  di\>  !  Disraeli  had 
proclaioiia!  as  a  chief  plank  in  their  part\'  phitffoaii  social 
betterment.  Ihr'  ^^oao■  that  had  heraldiod  its  faith  in 
the  paternalist  e  need  of  benevolent  government  could 
hardlv   hope    ho*    t!ie   future  support  of  the  masses  had 


1  r: 


tries  of  CamphelUBannerman  and  Asquith    203 


mer 


1  ii  L'  '. 


it  voted  down  such  bills  as  those  providinor  meals  for 
the  children  of  the  poor  at  school,  compensation  to  work- 
1  accidentally  injured  and  assistance  to  the  industrious 
rer  in  finding  employment.  Tlic  \\  orkmen'5  Com- 
pensation Act  (1906)  consoFidated  the  laws  making  em- 
ployers liable  for  payment  to  employees  for  injuries  by 
accident  suffered  in  their  work.  An  Education  Act  of  the 
same  vear  conferred  on  the  local  educational  authorities 
the  power  to  provide  the  means  of  furnishing  meals  to 
school  children.  They  may  provide  buildings,  furniture 
and  managers  necessary  for  the  preparation  and  service 
of  meals.  They  are  to  collect  the  cost  of  furnishing  the 
meals  from  the  children's  parents  in  case  the  parents  are 
able  to  pay.  If  not  the  local  authorities  may  apply  to 
the  Board  of  Education  and  that  board  may  authorize 
them  to  spend  out  of  the  rates  such  sum  as  will  meet  the 
cost  of  the  provision  of  such  food  provided  that  the 
amount  expended  does  not  exceed  the  sum  produced  by 
a  rate  of  one  half  penny  in  the  pound. 

The  Children's  Act  sought  to  guard  against  cruel  treat- 
ment of  children  at  the  hands  of  their  parents,  to  classify 
and  train  properly  the  youths  in  reformatories  and  like 
penal  institutions,  to  care  better  for  the  juvenile  criminals 
by  providing  probation  officers  and  children's  courts,  and 
by  forbidding  their  commitment  in  the  common  gaols. 

The  Old  Age  Pensions  Act  ( 1908)  which  was  amended 
in  191 1  provided  a  pension  for  every  person  who  attained 
seventy  years  of  age  and  had  been  for  twenty  years  pre- 
vious a  British  subject,  and  whose  annual  income  did  not 
exceed  thirty-one  pounds  ten  shillings.  The  pension 
varies  in  amount  but  may  be  as  much  as  five  shillings  per 
week.  T'  receipt  of  it  does  not  deprive  ue  recipient 
of  an}  irai.ai  iw  right.    The  benefits  of  the  law  are  de- 


204 


England^s  Progress 


rued  to  sucli  persons  as  have  Ivcn  iiabitually  lazy  and 
unemployed,  are  in  receipt  of  poor  relief,  make  false 
statements  as  to  earnings  and  possessions  or  deprive  them- 
selvt !.  oi  ari\  property  or  income  in  order  to  qualify  as 
pensioners. 

The  Labor  Exchanges  Act  (1909)  dealt  with  the 
problem  oi  iirit  iiifjloyment.  It  established  offices  where 
registers  arc  kept  of  employers  needing  workmen  and 
of  laborers  seeking  employment.  Its  purpose  is  to  bring 
together  supply  and  demand  in  the  labor  market  by  col- 
ietting  J  If  information  available  from  both  sides,  The 
Track  b  Hoards  Act  (1909)  dealt  with  the  ''sweating" 
tnis   .  extremely  low    wages,  excessive  hours  and 

uH  in!t;ir\  ^hops.  The  drift  of  population  from  the  rural 
districts  to  the  cities,  the  tendency  of  the  weaker  classes 
in  cities  to  become  dependent,  early  marriages,  big  fam- 
ilies, low  standards  of  life,  the  inefficiency  and  ignorance 
of  1  af^oiers  and  an  excessive  supply  (?f  unskilled  work- 
men, all  tended  to  create  in  some  trades,  such  as  tailor- 
iiu^  an  i  inakiiig  of  nets,  laces  and  paper  boxes,  conditions 
tl  at  |vla  t  1  thousands  of  poor  men,  women  and  youths  at 
the  iiurcy  of  greedy  and  unscrupulous  employers.  The 
new  law  created  boards  empowered  to  fix  minimum  rates 
of  waives  ail  1  r  >  enforce  better  conditions  in  the  shops. 
Rates  uf  wages  may  be  fixed  to  apply  universally  to  the 
tra  ie  e  r  to  any  special  process  or  to  any  special  class  of 
w  irkers  or  to  any  special  area  within  the  trade.  The 
I  J  Boitais  anticipate  dis|  utes  about  wages.  They 
a*  fee:  j  at  boards  composed  of  representatives 
oi  1  i:  ais  and  of  representat!\  e^  ui  employers.  They 
fix  u  iL  s  ha  in  time  to  time  which  have  the  force  of  law. 
la  special  industry  to  which  the  Act  applies  has  its  own 
special  fraJe  board.    The  Natnaial  Insurance  Act  (1911) 


Ministries  of  CampbelUBannerman  and  Asqmth    205 


pro\  I  iei  insurance  for  nhiess  and  loss  of  work.  It  rc- 
(|iiired  all  employed  manual  laborers  between  sixteen  and 
seventy  years  of  age  who  earned  less  than  i  ^^  pounds  a 
year  to  be  insured  and  compelled  their  ei  >  con- 

tribute parr  nf  the  insurance  funds,  TV:  "'ta:e  va\s  to 
the  fund  per  week  two  pence,  the  employer  tJirec  *he 
workmen  four.  The  insurance  may  be  carried  in  a  regu- 
lar insurance  company  or  in  a  trade  union  approved  by 
the  State.  Besides  payment  in  times  of  sickness,  such  aids 
as  medical  attention,  sanatorium  treatment  for  tubercular 
cases  and  maternity  benefits  for  mothers  in  parturition  are 
given,  in  1917  fifteen  million  workers  were  insured  under 
the  Act  and  the  insurance  fund  totaled  99,000,000  pounds. 
In  191 1  the  State  instituted  an  Unemployment  Insurance 
«^vstem  to  be  apphed  to  a  few  enumerated  trades.  The 
employer  and  wage  earner  each  contributed  2)6.  pence  a 
week  and  the  State  one-third  of  their  combined  contribu- 
tion; and  from  this  fund  a  man  who  was  really  unable  to 
get  work  would  be  paid  a  small  amount  each  week  for 
a  specified  time.  As  many  as  a  million  and  a  half  labour- 
ers are  connected  with  this  scheme.^ 

The  Development  Act  (1909)  provided  for  the  Treas- 
ury making  advances  of  money  to  a  government  depart- 
ment or  through  the  department  to  an  institution,  asso- 
ciation or  company  not  trading  for  profits  for  such  pur- 
poses as  promoting  forestry,  reclaiming  and  draining  land, 
constructing  and  improving  roads,  and  giving-  instruction 
in  marketing  and  scientific  farming.  Tie  1  lousing  Act 
(1909)  was  aimed  at  getting  rid  of  the  U  of  over- 
crowded tenements.  In  1901  the  census  na  loners 
declared  that  ihere  were  as  many  as  2  667,000  persons 
living  in  unsanitary  quarters.  In  some  of  the  industrial 
centres  one-fifth  of  the  people  were  living  in  one-room 


206 


England^s  Progress 


dwellings  iinj  more  than  half  in  houses  of  not  more  than 

tvvc*  rooriis.  Knowing  that  unsanitary  housing  accounted 
for  much  of  the  drunkenness,  crime,  pauperism,  disease 
and  high  mortality  in  these  places  the  government  in  the 
interests  of  d^c^ncy  nnd  the  public  health  determined  to 
tear  .jnuji  t!u  ugly  back  to  back  houses  of  the  slums  and 
to  build  in  their  stead  new,  comfortable,  well-ventilated 
tenements;  te  |vro\i(ie  gardens,  parks,  playgrounds  and 
open  sun  lit  sfiaees  iV)r  the  recreation  of  the  people,  and 
to  direct  the  future  growth  of  towns  with  an  eye  to  health, 
comfort  and  beauty  as  well  as  to  business  utility.  This 
F^f^^^  V  c  I  government  interference  with  the  property  of 
hindl  rrds  was  m  spirit  and  purpose  in  keeping  with  sev- 
eral enactments  passed  in  the  last  decade  or  two  as  the 
fruits  Hi  parr  of  rlie  activities;  of  such  organizations  as  the 
'To  ini  ns  l*re\ention  Society"  formed  in  1865  and  the 
**^^  ■      -  i  ^  nail  Holdings  Association"  formed  in 

1583.  i  he  puriioses  of  these  societies  have  been  to  save 
from  private  enclosure  and  for  public  use  many  open 
areas  about  the  cities  and  towns,  and  to  encourage  garden- 
ing and  agricultural  thrift  among  the  laboring  classes 
by  provid nig  i  way  by  which  they  may  rent  on  easy  terms 
little  patches  for  trucking  or  may  purchase  outright  small 
farni^  hv  paying:  very  moderate  annua!  stipends  over  a 
number  nf  years  The  Small  \  1  Idmgs  Act  of  1892  made 
it  the  duty  or  eacri  County  Council,  when  the  demand  for 
small  farms  seemed  to  justify  it,  to  secure  (but  not  by 
coiiipiilsory  purchase)  suitable  land,  to  ^-^ce,  drain,  and 
in  generai  nri|)rove  it  and  then  lease  or  sell  it  to  parties 
that  would  themselves  cultivate  it.  i  n.  purchaser  had 
to  p  ry  one-fifth  of  the  price  in  cash;  ^  he  might  leave  one- 
fourth  as  perpetual  ground  rent  and  he  could  repay  the 
remainder  in  half  yearly  instalments  during  a  period  not 


M'^nhtrles  of  CampbelUBannerman  and  Asquith    207 

longer  than  fifty  years.  By  the  allotment  laws  of  1882, 
1887,  1890  and  1894  I  was  made  the  duty  of  the  local 
government  through  the  parish  councils  to  provide  suffi- 
cient allotments  varying  from  one-quarter  of  an  acre  to  an 
acre  in  size  for  the  poorer  working-class  families  who  de- 
sired them  even  if  the  land  could  be  secured  only  through 
compulsory  purchase.  The  growth  in  the  number  of  such 
allotments  has  been  rapid  and  continuous.  In  1895  they 
numbered  579,133.  By  the  Commons  Law  Amendment 
Act  of  1893  ^^^  community's  interest  in  the  Common  has 
been  placed  above  the  freedom  of  action  and  private  ad- 
vantage of  the  lord  of  the  manor.  ''Village  greens,  road- 
side wastes  and  open  spaces''  that  have  been  long  used 
for  pasturage  or  cutting  turf  or  recreation  by  the  people 
are  no  longer  allowed  to  be  fenced  off  as  gentlemen's 
private  parks  and  game  preserves. 

Several  measures  of  social  reconstruction  proposed  by 
the  Liberals  were  staunchly  and  successfully  opposed  by 
the  Conservatives.  The  latter  was  thoroughly  intrenched 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  an  aristocratic  body  well  repre- 
senting the  landed  interests.  In  spite  of  the  overwhelm- 
ing popular  majority  of  the  Liberals  in  the  House  of 
Commons  the  Conservatives  by  means  of  the  Peers  de- 
feated the  ministry's  proposal  for  abolishing  plural  vot- 
ing, for  having  a  general  land  valuation,  for  placing  heavy 
license  duties  on  public-houses  and  for  a  revision  of  the 
educational  system.  The  Conservatives  declared  the  in- 
tention of  the  Educational  Bill  of  1906  advocated  by 
the  Non-Conformists  was  to  establish  a  purely  secular 
system:  and  they  were  able  to  defeat  the  bill  on  the 
grounds  that  it  was  against  the  interest  of  religion  and  of 
the  Estabhshed  Church.  The  License  Bill  of  1908,  a 
temperance  and  social  reform  measure,  was  opposed  on 


208 


England's  Pro. 


irrss 


^,,n 


vi.i:  \ 


1^     aliU    VV3.8 

'  vested 


the  grounds  tliat  h  was  .  'n"^,.ir 

class  lepfislation.     To  j' 

l^erous  no\-elty";  tlic  hind  pri)|H)Sals  \vc 

rights'';  and  the  new  taxing  scheme^   .■ 

than  revolutionary.     But  the  world  war  ;  :  ii 

1914   hriUigfit   into  being  laws   containiru/   '^:^,     ^.:''-::ince 

0!  nearlv  all  these  rejected  measures. 

1  lit  fig  clash  between  the  Conservatives  and  the  Lords 

n     Liberals  :\vj^.  Commons  on  the 


on 


i  J  I  K..        i 


one  naiuj   aro. 


other  occurred  over  the  nt  u  and  far-reaching  proposals 
of  .Mr  J  J(  \  1  (jeorge's  famous  Budget  of  190Q.  The 
Chancellor  of  thr  Fxrhequer  proposed  to  claim  for  the 
Stare  a  s!un  ned  increment  in  land  values, 

to  tax  at    1      r  n  come  that  was  earned  and  in- 

cuiiic   tFyit   vva^   iiiicaaaied,   to   tax   undeveloped  propertv 
and  to  ditterentiate  in  treatment  acquired  wealth  accord- 
ing as  It  had  rendered  service  or     disser\  ice"  to  society. 
1  arge  rt  \enues  were  needed  to  carry  out  the  new  costly 
social  n  forms,  such  as  the  expensive  system  of  national 
insurance  adopted;  and  to  cover  the  increasing  financial 
burdens  for  naval  construction  and  maintenance  of  Vm- 
r  ire  rriadt   necessary  by  the  militaristic  and  colonial  plans 
pr  oected  by  the  Conservatives  when  in  power.    The  pro- 
p<^s:i\^,  of   the  Chancellor  were  directel  stralpfht  at  the 
property    0}    tlic    rich.      I  ir    suggested    I'Co,;"':^,    a    twenty 
per  cent  tax  on  unearned  mcrement  on  land  payable  on 
its  sale  or  transfer;  a  special  tax  on  the  owners  of  mineral 
lands   who  c\a.cted  royalties;  a  heavy  grndiiated   niconie 
tax,  with  a  super-tax  on  incomes  over  5,000  pounds  and 
with  a  heavier  tax  on  earned  than  on  unearned  incomes; 
higfi  hen  e  taxes,  a  heavy  tax  on  automobiles  and  motor 
cycles  and  mheritance  faxes  on  a  new  scale.     On  estates 
over  1,000,000  ppunds  the  inheritance  tax  was  to  be  as 


,.  ♦■  i  00 


'■'  L 


ries  of  CampbelUBannerman  and  J-qinth    209 


high  as  fifteen  per  cent.  To  defend  I  iigland  and  to  rid 
her  of  the  curse  of  poverty  was  declared  by  Mr.  George 
to  he  the  purposes  of  his  bill.  Concluding  his  Budget 
speech  in  the  Commons  (April  29,  1909)  he  said  *'This 
.  .  .  is  a  W  ar  Budget.  It  is  for  raising  money  to 
wage  implacable  warfare  against  poverty  and  squalidness. 
T  cd.nn(n  fup  hoping  and  believing  that  before  this  gen- 

assed  away  we  shall  have  advanced  a  great 
St   [)  t»>  at  good  time  when  puv  erty  and  wretched- 

ness and  an  degradation  which  always  follow  in  its 

camp  will  be  as  remote  to  the  people  of  this  country  as 
the  wolves  which  once  infested  its  forests."  Supporting 
the  proposal  \fr  Winston  Churchill,  Secretary  of  State 
of  the  Home  Department,  declared  **The  tax  gatherer  is 
now  to  ask  not  only  how  much  property  a  man  has,  but 
also  how  did  he  get  it  ?  He  asks  'Did  you  earn  it  by  your- 
self or  has  it  been  left  to  you  by  others?  Was  it  gained 
by  processes  which  are  in  themselves  beneficial  to  the 
community  in  general,  or  was  it  gained  by  processes  which 
have  don  ^  n  I  to  anyone,  but  harm?  Was  it  gained 
by  the  enterprise  and  capacity  necessary  to  found  a  busi- 
ness, or  merely  by  squeezincr  and  bleeding  the  owner  and 
founder  of  the  business^  W  as  it  gained  by  supplying  the 
capital  which  industry  needs,  or  by  denying,  except  at 
ext  srtionate  price,  the  land  which  industry  requires?' 
\  Jo  did  vou  get  it?  That  is  the  new  question  which 
has  been  postulated,  and  which  is  vibrating  in  penetrat- 
ing     I         on  through  the  land?'* 

l^udget  were  the  landlord  class,  the  real 

■n    tobacco  trade,   the  motor  industry 

K    distillers,  bankers  and  capitalists. 

The  I       Is  jcciuicu  it  would  destroy  the  credit  of  Eng- 

e  bank  and  the  workshop  of  the  world."     T^ 


2IO 


England s  Progress 


I  I*  is  r  s  •' 


wouj  I  ilestrov  the  sanctity  of  property  and  confidence  in 
1  ngliuul  s     financial     prudence,     equity,     stability     and 
strcngtii      After  long  debate  the  Budget  was  passed  in  the 
I  louse   ot    Cciiiurion^.   having  received   a  handsome  ma- 
hut    fi  the  House  of  Lords  it  was  defeated  by  an 
\<Ht    of  350  to  75.     This  throwing  out  by  the 
n  a  money  bill  of  the  Commons  planned  to  pro- 
\  ule  for  till  M  r\  ices  of  the  year  was  declared  in  the  Lower 
to  ha.     I  breach  of  the  Constitution  and  a  usurpa- 
tlit:  rights  of  the  !  liaise  of  Commons.'*     Parlia- 
ment was  dissolved  and  an  appeal  made  to  the  country. 
In  the  election  campaign  that  followed  there  was  about 
1^    rn  { di    discussion   concerning  mending  or   ending  the 
I  luusi  ot   I  rods  as  concerning  the  merits  or  demerits  of 
the    fh   Igut        Iru    Socialists,    Radicals   and   Irish   were 
rcuJv  tt^  aholish  the  Lppcr  Chamber,  stigmatized  as  the 


1  ^i 


n  o 


01 


n  '* 


statrnant 


■  f-^. 


and   improcrressive  branch  of  the  legisla- 


tiiich'  I  !u  constituthui  of  a  legislative  body  on  the  he- 
reditary principle  was  declared  ^^illogical  and  incom- 
I  atihJe  with  free  institutions.'*  Tf  was  urged  that  fa- 
vc  litu en,  or  wealth,  or  political  influence,  or  naval  and 
military  service,  rather  than  eminent  legislative  ability 
was  ire^iuently  the  determining  factor  in  appointments 
ti  tie  peeiai^e  that  ''honors  rather  than  duties  are 
enipiKisi/ed  and  that  it  was  a  mistake  to  allow  a  title 
o!  lioiior  to  carrv  with  it  the  right  of  making  a  nation's 
hu\>  it  was  declared  that  the  representation  of  an  as- 
senildy  whose  members  numbering  about  600  owned  one- 
thii  1  of  the  cultivated  and  over  one-fourth  of  all  the  land 
o!  hni^hirul  (on  an  average  of  38,672  acres  for  each 
peer)  was  decidedly  one-sided  and  unfair.  It  gave  too 
much  weiirhr  to  the  landed  aristocracy  and  too  little  to 
the     oiiiiRieial,  manufacturing  and  industrial  interests 


tries  of  Campbell'Bannerman  and  Asquith    211 


of  the  country.  The  Chamber  was  criticized  as  "out  of 
touch  with  the  people."  The  hereditary  principle  was 
constantly  ridiculed.  "We  allow  babies  to  be  ear-marked 
in  their  cradles  as  future  law-makers,  utterly  regardless 
as  to  whether  they  turn  out  to  be  statesmen,  or  fools,  or 
rogues."  ^ 

The  Liberal  Party  did  not  agree  with  the  Radicals  In 
believing  that  the  House  of  Lords  should  be  abolished 
but  they  were  opposed  to  its  vetoing  vital  laws  passed 
by  the  Commons  and  were  determined  to  abridge  or 
restrict  its  power.  They  did  not  desire  single  chamber 
government,  believing  it  beneficial  to  have  the  Upper 
Chamber  exercising  powers  of  delay  and  suggestion  of 
amendment;  but  they  were  resolved  to  destroy  forever 
the  Lord's  veto  power  over  the  money  bills  of  the  Com- 
mons and  over  other  public  bills  that  w^ere  clearly  the 
desire  of  the  people.  In  the  election  (January,  19 10) 
the  Liberals  won  though  they  lost  almost  a  hundred 
seats.  The  Budget  was  again  presented  and  the  Lords 
this  time  yielded  its  passage. 

In  the  spring  of  19 10  occurred  the  death  of  the  sov- 
ereign, Edward  VII,  who  was  succeeded  by  his  son  George 
V.  This  occasioned  a  sort  of  truce  between  the  Con- 
servatives and  Liberals  for  a  few  months  but  with  the 
assembling  of  Parliament  the  fight  was  again  renewed. 
In  November  a  dead-lock  occurred  that  caused  another 
appeal  to  the  country.  In  this  second  election  (December, 
1 9 10)  the  Liberals  made  slight  gains  and  now  felt  strong 
enough  to  press  for  restricting  the  power  of  the  Lords. 
The  main  provision  of  Mr.  Asquith's  Parliamentary  Bill 
read:  "If  any  money  Bill,  having  been  passed  by  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  sent  up  to  the  House  of  Lords 
at  least  one  month  before  the  end  of  the  session,  is  not 


England's  /^ 


oip'ess 


passed  In  tlie  I  louse  of  Lords  without  amendment  within 
one  nic nth  after  it  is  sent  up  to  the  House,  the  Bill  shall, 
unless  riR:  i  iDust*  (^\  LiiUMwrnis  dircit  to  the  contrary  be 

prcscntCiJ  tn  I  lis  \!a;cstv  a,rid  hccoiiic  rni  Act  of  Par- 
^■^^nvnt  on  thr  K        '    .   ^  ^     ^^ ..     ^  j.  notwithstand- 

ing tliat  tliu  iluuse  UL  Lui:a^  liave  not  consented  to  the 

"If  anv  I'  ;  ^.  Bill  (other  than  Money  Bill  or  a  Bill 

containini^^  imv  provision  to  extend  the  maximum  dura- 
tion of  Par-nanicnt  beyond  fi\ .;  \c;ars)  is  passed  by  the 
I  louse  of  Commons  in  three  si     ,-         >essions  (whether 


o 


sanie 


f/ 


trie  1  loijs 


ariKutnou  nrnot)    a-      a  a  \-mg  been  sent  up 
{  Lords  at  least  one  month  before  the  end 
'  ^^  ^     CM   a         ejected  by  the  House  of  Lords  in  each 
oi    tiieM:   sessions,   that    Bill   shall,   unless   the   House  of 
Commons  In  eef  to  the  contrary,  be  presented  to  His  Maj- 
esty and  become  an  Act  of  Parliament  on  the  Royal  As- 
sent   being   signified    thereto,    notwithstanding    that   the 
1  I   use  of  Lords  have  not  consented  to  the  Bill.    Provided 
it    Ids  pr  )\ision  shall  not  take  effect  unless  two  years 
a   r  uipsed  between  the  date  of  the  second  reading  in 
the  hrst  of  these  sessions  of  the  Bill  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons ml  the  date  on  which  it  passes  the  House  of  Com- 
mons m  the  third  of  these  sessions,"  eta  ,  etc. 

Ilia    Bill   was   stoutly  resisted    bv   tfie    Lords.     They 

that  it  practically  set  up  single-chamber  govern- 

advantages  of  the  period  of  delay  pro- 


cia 
me 


\aae'' 


.-  V  1      Alt 


fr  a , , 
I  i  i  e 


\\aaiKe!a 
b\'  thta  ; 
tfie   In  a 


I 


re  illusorv:  that  the  suggestions  of  the 
i  ^'-ni-c  uonl  i  lae  treated  with  contempt 
i  I  louse:  that  the  supporters  of 

realize  what  a   revolutionary  thing  they 
were  pro|)os!ng;  that  they  had  brought  in  the  Bill  with 


an 


Ministries  of  CampbeU^Bannerman  and  .hqmth 


2  I 


the  **trivial  elegance  with  which  they  introduced  a  turn- 
pike Act";  and  seemed  to  regard  'The  House  of  Lords 
as  simply  a  culprit  to  be  hanged  without  shift  aini  with- 
out repentance."  In  the  minds  of  the  Liberals  the  Bill 
was  d  ^'strictly  true  constitutional  proposition"  since  to 
give  this  increased  authority  to  the  laaaiinons  simply 
meant  to  acknowledge  the  s  a  a  v         the   people  in 

law-making;  and  when  their  leader  Mr.  Asquith  made 
known  the  fact  that  the  kinir  was  with  theiu  in  the  con- 
test and  ready  if  necessary  to  create  enough  new  peers  to 
insure  its  passage  they  were  able  to  force  the  unwilling 
assent  of  the  Lords.  To  have  allowed  some  hundred  or 
so  peers  to  be  created  solely  to  pass  the  measure  would 
have  made,  as  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  thought, 
the  House  and  the  country  **a  laughing  stock  in  the  Do- 
minions and  n  foreign  countries."  In  August,  191 1,  the 
Bill  became  law. 

Unpopular  with  the  Conservatives  and  Lords  also  was 
the  Act  of  the  Liberal  Government  that  gave  members 
of  parliament  salaries  of  400  pounds  a  year,  which  was 
passed  shortly  after  the  Parliament  Act.  The  measure 
was  pleasing  to  the  Laborites  and  the  democracy  gen- 
erally since  it  made  possible  the  entry  into  parliamentary 
service  of  a  large  number  of  more  capable  and  desirable 
men  whose  means  were  limited  and  saved  political  and 
industrial  organizations  ^-he  burden  of  supporting  out  of 
the4r  funds  some  of  then  representatives  in  the  Commons. 
Opponents  of  the  Act  had  argued  that  paid  members  of 
Parliament  would  become  mere  "delegates  of  their  con- 
stituents rather  than  free  representatives,  and  suffer  loss 
of  moral  authority" ;  that  paying  members  salaries  would 
result  in  bringing  to  the  halls  of  Westminster  the  profes- 
sional politician  and  agitator;  that  the  rate  of  pay  would 


214 


Efii^land's  Progress 


he  increased  until  it  became  a  heavy  burden  on  the  tax 
payer  and  that  it  would  lead  to  claims  for  payment  for 
manv    services    formerly   rendered   gratuitously   in   both 


natMsria 


..  I 


ft 


senate  eU 
members 
was  to  ha 


e^vernments. 
Mr.  Asquith  introduced  his  Home  Rule  Bill, 
r  a  parhament  in  Ireland,  consisting  of  a 
4  ^  !Tiember<?  nnd  a  house  of  commons  of  164 
I  l>ter,  the  Northern  Province  of  11  counties, 
iibers.  The  Irish  Parliament  could  not 
make  any  law  to  establish  or  endow  any  religion  or  pro- 
hibit tiie  tree  exercise  thereof  or  give  any  privilege  or 
impose  any  disability  on  account  of  religious  belief.  It 
could  not  legislate  on  peace  or  war,  the  navy,  army,  for- 
eign relations,  trade  outside  Ireland,  coinage  or  legal 
tender.      I  he  exeeutive  was  to  remain  vested  in  the  sov- 

presentative,  and  42  members  from  Ireland 

i  to  the  British  House  of  Commons.  The 

tee  of  the  Privy  Council  was  to  have 

the  constitutionality  of  any  act  of  the 

he  Irisfi   1  xchequer  was  to  bear  in 


ereign  or  hi< 

were  te»  hi  i  : 
Judicial  lo 
power  t     I 

Irish   Parlui 


main  the  expenses  of  the  Irish  administration.  The  Im- 
perial f  i  iiier  u  as  to  pay  a  permanent  annual  sum  to 
th 


c  ha  N  h 
1  I 


-xehetiuc 


icr  oi  200,000  pounds.    The  first  year  it 

wnuiii  pay  a,  sum  of  500,000  pounds. 

The  measure  met  with  staunch  and  bitter  opposition 

from  the  I  (uiservatives  and  Unionists  of  England  and 

from   tile   prcisperoT]^   Protestant  minority  of  Ulsterites. 

tion 
ter  e*! 


*'i '  I 


peraane; 
fers  I'n 


etiirneil  17  Home  Rulers  and  16  anti-Home 
\  e  a  half  of  the  best  of  Ulster  has  a  popula- 
Seotch  and  langlish,  a  people  thrifty,  mat- 
t,  and  different  from  the  Irish  in  language,  tem- 
history  and  religion.  This  alien  minority  pre- 
i;  to  Irish  rule.     Energetic  and  enterprising  it 


Ministries  of  Campbell-Bannerman  and  Asquith 


- '  y 


has  built  up  many  great  industries  and  commercial  under- 
takings, and  it  believes  that  there  is  nothing  to  gain  and 
much  to  lose  by  having  themselves,  their  business  and 
property  placed  at  the  mercy  of  an  Irish  parliament  Be- 
tween the  Catholic  Celts  of  Ireland  and  the  Protestant 
colonizers  of  Ulster  has  long  existed  a  bitter  animosity; 
and  the  latter  were  unwilling  to  have  their  laws  and  taxes 
determined  by  a  parliament  in  which  the  former  had  an 
overwhelming  majority.  These  Englishmen  of  Ulster, 
numbering  about  one  and  a  half  millions  declared  that 
England  could  not  honorably  remove  them  from  the  pro- 
tection of  the  British  Parliament;  that  as  Englishmen 
they  had  a  right  to  F  exlish  government;  and  that  before 
they  would  submit  to  be  subjected  to  the  rule  of  Irish- 
men they  would  go  to  war.  They  had  the  sympathy  of 
the  Conservatives  and  Unionists,  who  opposed  Home 
Rule  on  the  grounds  that  the  concession  of  a  parliament 
given  in  the  Bill  would  be  regarded  by  the  Irish  as  a 
mere  installment  of  their  right;  that  it  was  a  step  toward 
establishing  a  hostile  nation  on  England's  flank;  that 
Ireland  was  close  at  hand  and  could  be  best  governed 
from  Tondon;  that  agrarian  troubles  had  be  -^t  the 
bottom  of  Irish  discontent  and  that  these  were  being  re- 
moved through  better  land  laws  and  the  government's 
policy  of  furnishing  to  the  agricultural  and  industrial 
interests  of  the  country  financial  aid  and  the  directing 
skill  of  experts. 

The  friends  of  Home  Rule  on  the  other  hand  affirmed 
that  Ireland  possessed  a  distinct  nationality  and  had  there- 
fore a  right  to  govern  herself;  that  Ireland  did  not  desire 
separation  from  England,  but  did  seek  the  repeal  of  the 
Act  of  Union,  which  was  never  consented  to  and  which 
had  resulted  in  an  unpopular,  inefficient  and  extravagant 


2l6 


Entflan^s  Protfress 


system  of  gcu^cniriicat :  that  |:)rugress  in  tlic  iii.tteriai  and 
intellectLKii  life  of  the  oeoolc  \vi)u!J  !'oih>\v  frcMii  the  ex- 
ercise  o!  seli-goveriirneiit ;  that  l-jigland  wuiiKJ  make  I  ia>^ 
land,  fnendiv  by  fioikinj^  her  free;  and  tdiat  tlie  LdstiT 
I  nioiiist  nii!ior!t\  exaggerated  their  importance  wr  i 
niagfiii  virii^  tljeir  claims  above  the  just  demand  of  a  \  le 
jKiti'.ni:  aiul  that  thev  had  no  laothMH  tu  expea  unfair  t raoo.- 
nient  1)\'  the  N  a  titaaaaists  n;  ;:  a.o  \r  ]-av'  'fit  ^iiKe  in 
matters  uf       .  d  g.  •^^  ;„ :  aaient  they  had  _  .jtiy  dealt 

with. 

Attar  two  years  of  struggK  .  thanks  to  the  Parliamen- 
tary A  a  f  1911,  that  thw:  i  the  veto  power  of  the 
lioiise  (s|  Lords,  the  Home  \\ii\.r:s  won.  The  Bill  waib 
passed  inr  the  third  time  bv  tiia  I  L'msc  of  Commons  in 
Ma\a  o;ii4'.  and  was  signed  hy  ^''^^"  fving  and  placed  on 
the  statute  hook  the  next  September.  But  owing  to  the 
unvviHin^-fiess  of  Ulster  to  be  included  within  tfie  pro- 
visi  iFis  if  the  Ao  :  '  opposition  under  the  leadership  of 
Sir  1  dead  i  eg  the  militant  form  of  raising 

anvl  drdhni4  .1  r  army  of  100,000,  operation  of 

the  Aet  was  repeatedly  suspended;  and  finally  by  reason 
of  the  fight  witli  iJermany  was  postponed  to  the  end  of 
the  \\  ar.  W  a^-  *his  closed  the  situation  in  Ireland  was 
so  efianged  that  Lloyd  George,  who  uais  now  at  the  head 
of  tiie  ^o\ernment,  had  eventually  to  work  out  an  en- 
tirelv  111 ..    \.t. 

A  mea-.o''-  n*  rh^  !  .'■■".•'-al  novcrannent  that  was  very 
popular  A       Conformists  was  the  Welsh  Dis- 

establish! I  a       viuwment  Bill    According  to  the 

repeirt  of  rlic  Rniad  Commission  appointed  in  1906  to  get 
the  facts  in  the  case  the  Church  of  England  had  in  Wales 


about    1 


yja- 


)8  I   communicants  while  tin    X       Conformist 


bodies  had  about  550,260  members,    llae  (Imrrh  of  Lng- 


^irn'^tries  of  Campbell-Banner  man  and  AsqtAth    217 

land  was  the  largest  religious  body  in  Wales  and  had  pros- 
lured  and  grown  iii  recent  years.  Between  the  years 
la"  the  number  of  persons  confirmed  averaged 
M  dnst  10,178  for  the  previous  ttn  years.   The 

^  '  ^'^  ilt*^  was  not  a  separate  organization  from 

tie   V  h  ol  L  \  but  a  constituent  and  old  part  of 

it  for  tae  "W  at  s  were  sending  their  proctors 

to  the  I  .iatv ;  :a.i:0'  i  louses  of  Convocation  more  than  two 
and  a  half  centuries  before  t]M'  Welsh  counties  were  sen  ! 
ing  their  representatives  t       oe  English  Parhamentd 
Between  tht  Lnuich  in  Wales  and  the  rest  of  the  Church 
of   Lngland    existed    iull    "ecclesiastical,    constitutional, 
legal,  and  historical  identity."    The  gross  income  of  the 
Welsli  dioceses  in  1906  was  556,000  pounds,  of  which 
amount    296,000    representing    voluntary    contributions 
would  be  unaffected  by  the  bill ;  but  of  the  remaining  260,- 
000  derived  from  endowments  175,000  represented  na- 
tional propertv,  so  the  Liberals  declared,  and  this  amount 
the    Bil!    would    take    away.      The    Conservatives    and 
Churchmen  denounced  the  proposal  as  confiscation  pure 
and  simple.     They  denounced  as  spurious  and  false  the 
Liberals'   secular  argument  that  the  State  should  have 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  religion;  and  claimed  that 
those   who   favored  disestablishment   of  the    Church    in 
Wales  were  working  also  toward  disestablishment  of  the 
Church  in  England.    Those  favoring  the  Bill  argued  that 
an  esuun^hed  church  occupied  an  unfair,  privileged  posi- 
tion; that  its  clergy  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  public  ecclesi- 
astical appointments  and  that  its  Bishops  alone  of  reli- 
gious leaders  had  seats  in  a  iiuuse  of  Parliament;  that 
establishment  w?s  prejudicial  to  national  unity;  that  es- 
tablishment allowed  Parliament  a  secular  body  to  legis- 
late in  church  matters;  that  disestablishment  in  Ireland, 


2l8 


England's  Progress 


^l^^  f^  /  Duiii  !i  ons  and  in  America  had  proved  bene- 
ficia;  :  !•  disestablishment  in  Wales  had  been  de- 
iP..  c  .:  edly  by  a  majority  of  its  mhabitants  and 
tr.ar  :  l  a  oh  in  Wales  was  ^'alien'^  in  its  character 
and  rcruiscfHc  1  a  mere  minority  of  its  people.  Ihe 
trend  of  the  times  was  with  the  Liberals.  In  1913  the 
Bill  in  slightly  modified  form  passed  the  Commons  for 
the  sccDud  time  with  a  good  normal  majority.  By  the 
Lords  It  was  vetoed  by  a  vote  of  242  to  88.  But  m 
1914  the  disestablishment  act  was  passed. 

Other  political  problems  that  commanded  considerable 
attention  in  England  during  Asquith's  ministry  before  the 
Great  War  opened  were  tariff  reform,  extension  of  the 
fruufnsi      woman   suffrage    and   armament.      England's 
low  rc\  cniic  tariff,  collected  on  tobacco,  tea,  spirits,  wine 
and  siii^ar.   did  not  satisfy  the  tariff  reformers.     They 
coniidiifu  i  tiiat  foreign  nations  had  thrived  on  protec- 
tion! buil  liiiii  lip  their  industries  and  manufactures  by  en- 
lovin^  ihi  double  advantage  of  having  an  uninvaded  home 
iTiarkLt  and  of  having  a  dumping  ground  for  their  sur- 
I  lu.  products  in  free  trade  England.     They  proposed  to 
regulate  foreign  imports  so  that  the  maximum  of  employ- 
ment mi^ht  be  given  to  British  hands  in  supplying  the 
British  n  ition  with  its  wants;  to  have  Great  Britain  nego- 
tiate treaties   ol    reciprocity  with  other  states,  yielding 
the  British  home  and  colonial  markets  only  for  advanta- 
frvous  concessions  iii   their  possessions;  and  to  estabhsh 
Inn  wn  I  England  and  its  colonies  and  India  a  permanent 
I    c  V  of  Imperial  preference  in  trade.     The  reformers 
realized  diat  since  England  was  dependent  on  other  coun- 
tries   for   her    food-supply  the  changes  they   advocated 
would  involve  enhancing  the  price  of  the  necessities  of 


Ministries  of  Campbell-Bannerman  and  /hquith    iig 

life  for  the  English  people,  but  they  argued  that  this  dis- 
advantage would  be  more  than  offset  by  the  advantages 
that  would  result  from  more  constant  employment,  in- 
creased wages,  and  the  general  growing  prosperity  of  a 
manufacturing  nation.     But  the  cause  of  tariff  reform  did 
not  strengthen  before  19 14.     Taxed  food  and  restricted 
trade  were  not  popular  with  the  consumers  and  shippers. 
The  woman  suffrage  and  extension  of  franchise  ques- 
tions were  conspicuously  in  evidence  in  19 12.    The  women 
of  England  had  had  experience  in  the  government  of  their 
schools  since  1870,  being  then  allowed  to  sit  as  members 
on  the  school  boards,  and  had  exercised  the  franchise  in 
many  other  local  government  matters   since    1888    and 
1894.     They  sought  now  the  parliamentary  vote  and  of- 
fered no  end  of  reasons  in  their  favor.     They  said  they 
should  have  the  ballot  because  women  held  large  stakes 
in  the  country,  paid  taxes  and  had  distinct  interests;  be- 
cause women  were  intellectually  as  capable  as  men  and 
had  shown  their  political  capacity  by  good  work  on  local 
and  municipal  councils  and  by  acting  as  canvassers  and 
speakers  to  assist  men  in  political  campaigns;  because 
about  seventy  town  councils  had  passed  resolutions  in 
favor  of  woman  suffrage;  because  the  enfranchisement  of 
women  in  New  Zealand  and  Australia  had  been  beneficial 
and  because  in  Finland,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  several  of 
the  states  of  the  United  States  women  had  been  given  the 
vote  on, the  same  terms  as  men.     The  opponents  of  the 
movement  declared  that  the  safety  of  the  state  would  be 
imperilled  by  having  questions  of  peace  and  war  decided 
by  those  who  did  not  bear  arms;  that  women  outnumber- 
ing men  ^1  England  would  control  the  government;  that 
the  parliamentary  vote  would  result  in  placing  women  in 


o  1  n 


England's  Piugrcss 


Parliament,  in  the  Cabinet  and  in  the  judiciary  w^ich 
would  be  unwise;  that  the  vote  was  not  wanted  bv  a 
great  i.ri'portior-  ui  the  women  of  England. 

The  ••  .'.t-r,  -r  was  but  one  phase  of  a  world-wide 
progress  mik  ng  on  the  part  of  women  due  to  a  new 
economic  irc<  1  ni  gained  in  the  Industrial  Revolution 
and  tu  the  strength  and  knowkdi^c  acquired  through  en- 
joying the  same  educational  ad\  autaLHs  as  men.  In  tiic 
summer  of  i-i-  a  Woman  Suflragc  Bd!  jriving  to  women 
the  iranchisc  rai  practically  tiie  same  tenub  a=  tor  men 
passed  its  second  reading  in  the  1  louse  of  Commons  but 
Wis  tiK  n  kdled  in  committee  of  the  a  lioie  fo  conciliate 
„,o  icrn  ..niniuu  tlu  advocates  of  the  proposal  tried  to 
.,..  ■  measure  conferring  the  ballot  only  on  the  proper- 
t:,.i  classes  .  t   women  but  the  proposition  was  not  sup- 


portcii  h\   trir 

f(}i"!!l    W'aN   '.HM'- 

Minister      a'lM 


w 


t  i 


1 1 ;  i< 


suiv 


K'l 


WoUUi    v  a  i  I 

were  !H)t  a, 

i.lCbl  i  a  LUh  I  \ 
{    ■      .'.',■  1   . 


pared   ' 

tht   I il" 

cei\x'd 


itc  I  dl. 
lit 


r    u   liovernment.     The  proposed  re- 
as  not  democratic  in  spirit.     1  iu  Prime 
iccJ     his     intention     of     introduring     a 
I  suffraire  bill  and  of  giving  the  friends 
e  chance  to  amend  it  in  their  interest. 
r  for  the  women,  for  they  knew  th  it 
ol   the  Premier  and  Cabinet  they 
iin  :l-*rnh1c  ainciidment.   and  they 
ng  themselves  as  to  the  wisdom  and 
greneral  adult  suffrage  which  meant 
,.re  nr  six  million  women,  of  whom 
id  many  more  were  wholly  unpre- 
!    agists  expected  better  things  of 
e;e'   and  dceiared  tiicy  had  been  de- 
i      )f  the   Prime  Mmister       Dis- 
ced, ignored  and  dishonorably 
to  militant  tactics  and  demonstra- 


.A  J     i    N  :   ^ 


tries  of  Camphell-Bannerman  and  Asqmth 


22  1 


t!ons  of  violence  in  the  hope  of  forcing  the  Government 
t  i  fueii  their  demands.  They  smashed  windows,  de» 
stroyed  beautiful  paintings,  blew  up  palaces,  ruined  the 
mail  in  the  letter  boxes,  interfered  in  the  Derby  tiirowing 
to  the  ground  the  king's  horse,  fired  vac  o  buildings, 
destroyed  railway  coaches,  raided  the  II  oi    Com- 

mons, forced  their  way  into  the  houses  of  (  tbinet  olicers, 
fought  the  police,  placed  bombs  in  churches,  wrecked  golf 
links,  defied  the  courts,  and  when  sent  to  jail  for  their 
crimes  dared  the   "hunger-strike"   attempting  to   starve 
themselves   as    martyrs   to    the    cause.      Tn    some   cases 
forcible  feeding  broke  the  ^'hunger  strike"  but  in  others 
it  failed.     Mr.  McKenna,  the  Home  Secretary,  thought 
he  had  solved  the  problem  when  his  prisoners'  bill  was 
passed  allowing  him  to  reincarcerate  prisoners  who  had 
been  released  after  self-imposed  starvation,     lender  this 
"cat  and  mouse  act"   Mrs.   Pankhurst  and  the  leading 
suffragists    were   repeatedly   arrested,    released   and   re- 
arrested, seemingly  without  effect  upon  their  ardor.     The 
suffragists  made  war  only  on  property  but  they  threatened 
to  take  life  also  if  their  cause  was  not  fairly  considered. 
They  were  thoroughly  organized,  had  strong  financial 
backing  and  could  claim  able  supporters  in  both  of  the 
chief  political  parties  as  well  as  among  the  Laborites 
and  Socialists.     Their  threats  did  not  advance  their  in- 
teiei>is  but  iheir  loyal,  useful  services  and  noble-spinted 
sacrifices  jiuring  the  war  did.     In  the  Franchise  Bill  of 
19 1 8  they  won. 

in  view  of  what  later  occurred  in  19 14,  the  warnings 
concerning  the  necessity  of  increased  armament  spoken  of 
in  19 1 2  by  men  of  vision  are  of  interest  as  well  as  the 
way  in  which  England  received  them.    "Few  thinking  men 


222 


En^Iand*s  Progress 


can  doubt,'  said  Sir  J.  D.  Hccv  ''that  collision  is  sooner 
or  later  inevitable  between  (oi  at  Britain,  which  claims, 
and  at  present  possesses,  dominion  of  the  seas,  and  the 
GcrrTKin  Empire,  the  redundant  population  of  which  is 
shut  out  by  our  navy  from  all  the  most  desirable  i  ^«  of 
the  earth.  The  ultimate  struggle  is  as  inevitable  as 
that  between  Spain  and  Britain,  or  that  between  (ur-^ 
riKiny  and  F-oiie/'  Germany  was  l)chev;;d  tu  ha\'c  the 
ambition  to  Holland  and  Belgium.     If  this  gain 

were  had  the  :  .    i^a  would  be  in  a  position  to  seriously 
in  u  I   h  rml  n  d's  sea-power.     Germany  steadily  enlarged 

i  new  naval  construction  between  the  years 

1  9 1  i    and  this  increase  in  building  large  ar- 

Liiser^^,    bnttlc-ships    and    drcadnaughts    meant 

i      /  and  necessitated  a  stronger  defense. 

England  should  be  prepared  to  meet 

>!   ^u,ooo  men  and  that  the  military  esub- 

raised  from  j  1 2,000  to  800,000.  Eng- 

erve  of  some  55,000  was  declared  to  be 

I  h     subsr  tution  of  the  German  compulsory 

h  voluntary  principle  of  military  service  was 

would  have  involved  an  additional  cost  of 


c\pcriusta.i 
mo  LI  red    -.. 


\\    . !  > 


an    nr.  ah:o!i 


< ;  L 


.pr 


u      »^ 


:n:i..'*as. 


in 


'-  . '  1  as  a  nation  were  not  convinced  of  the 
of  carrying  heavier  military  burdens.  Support- 
na\  V  about  equal  to  that  of  both  Germany  and  the 
d  Stites  they  saw  no  reason  for  maintaining  a  big 
i>i  c  army  establishment  at  home.  They  opposed 
conipuUorv  sei\  ice  on  the  grounds  that  it  was  inconsistent 
witli  tiie  liberty  of  the  snbiect  and  that  it  hurt  business. 
1  iu  i  !  ed  that  costly  preparations  for  war  promoted 
war  arii  .  ^  ;  eace  lovers  urged  arbitration  as  the  proper 


c:  X I ' 


Ministries  of  CampbelUBannerman  and  Asqmth    22, 


iiietho  1  01  ^;  '         aiternational  disputes.     Such  facts  re- 
\  eal  tliat  h aigland  was  surely  not  the  aggressor  in  open- 


ing the  Great  War. 


I. 
2. 

3. 


4 
6. 

7. 


REFERENCES 


llaycb;  British  Social  Politics,  p.  19. 

Alden:  Democratic  England,  p.  5-7. 

Tiirbeville  &  iHowe;  Great  Britain  in  the  Latest  Age,  p. 

194-195. 
Cheney:  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England,  p.  271. 
iVIoran:  The  English  Government,  p.  194. 
Roundell,   Earl  of   Selborne:  A  Defence  of  the  Church  of 

England  Against  Disestablishment,  p.  370. 
Robinson  &  Beard:  Outlines  of  European  History,  p.  521. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


CAUSES  OF  THF  WORLD  W  \R 


■\ 


t  1   i  T   ■  I 


Toward  the  close  of  the  summer  of   19 14  suddenly 
broke  out  the  Great  European  War.     To  account  for  the 

nutbreak  n u  iierous  features  of  the  condition  of  Europe 
rnusr  be  considered.  The  Immediate  occasion  of  the  con- 
flict was  the  assassination  by  a  band  of  conspirators  of  the 

luki  I  rancis  Ferdinand,  successor  to  the  Austro- 
u\   thrnnc,   and  his  consort  on  June   28,    19 14, 

n  V  were  paying  a  visit  to  Sarajevo,  the  capital  of 
B( i^fiui,  J  Austrian  province  that  adjoins  Servia.  An  in- 
vestigation i)f  the  crime  by  a  judicial  commission  of  the 
\u  ■  I  I  lungary  government,  which  inquiry  however  was 
cnnJucteil  in  secret  iinJ  on  Bosnian  territory,  led  that  gov- 
erniiienr  tu  the  hdiQi  that  the  murder  of  Archduke  Fer- 
dinand hi  J  been  systematically  planned,  possibly  with 
the  couni/ance  of  the  Servian  governmental  authorities. 
I  c!  hii  rrid  was  much  hated  in  Servia  because  he  was  a  pro- 
e  nee  1  uui  powerful  exponent  of  Austro-Hungarian 
un  u  and  strength,  while  the  Servians  were  in  sympathy 
^vitii  the  re\  i  iuntionary  organization  active  in  the  South- 
ern I  rnvinces  of  Austria  which  sought  to  win  for  some 
of  the  Slav  districts  independence  of  Austria  and  possibly 
irucnpnratioii  with  Servia.  That  the  murder  of  an  Aus- 
trian prince  should  have  turned  quickly  the  whole  of 
Europe  into  a  field  of  war  cannot  be  understood  until  one 
takes  ifitci  acouint  the  racial  differences,  the  groupings  and 
alliances  and  die  enss  purposes  of  the  leading  European 
nations. 


a24 


Causes  of  the  World  War 


225 


ib- 


Within  the  Southeastern  section  ut  iiurope  about 
tria  and  the  Balkans  w  ere  and  are  various  races  and  ren  - 
nants  of  races  that  have  been  fighting  one  another  in  in- 
vasions and  counter-invasions  of  territory  since  the  bar- 
barian liordes  first  proceeded  forth  from  the  Arian 
plains  of  Asia.  There  has  been  hatred  and  cnnHict  be- 
tween Roman  and  Teuton;  between  Teuton  and  Slav; 
Slav  and  Hungarian;  Hungarian  and  Austrian;  German 
and  Bohemian;  Greek  and  Bulgarian;  Servian  and  Aus- 
trian; and  between  Turk  and  French  and  Russian.  There 
have  been  conflicts  between  Moslems  and  Christians; 
Roman  Christians  and  Greek  Christians;  Jews  and  Gen- 
tiles; Protestants  and  Catholics;  between  all  sorts  of  **be- 
lievers"  and  *'infidels."  In  this  quarter  of  Europe  politi- 
cal boundaries  cut  across  ancient  persistent  divisions  of 
race,  language  and  religion.  Uprisings  have  been  fre- 
quent and  states  are  in  the  making. 

Since  1683  when  a  Turkish  army  besieger^  Vienna— 
the  highwater  mark  of  Turkish  conquest  in  Europe — 
there  has  been  a  steady  decline  in  Ottoman  supremacy 
attended  by  losses  of  territory  and  the  rise  of  new  states. 
In  1699  Hungary  broke  away  from  Turkish  rule;  in 
1833  Greece;  in  1703  Montenegro;  in  1856  Roumania;  in 
1830  Servia;  in  1878  Bulgaria.  In  1774  Russia  got  land 
on  the  Black  Sea,  and  in  1792  advanced  to  the  Dniester 
River,  and  to  the  Pruth  River  in  18 12.  In  188 1  England 
took  Ep^pt  and  in  1908  Austria-Hungary  annexed  Bos- 
nia and  Herzegovina.  In  188 1  France  got  Tunis  and 
in  191 1  Morocco.  In  19 12  Italy  took  Tripoli  and  as  a 
result  of  the  First  and  Second  Balkan  Wars  ( 1912— 1913) 
the  Balkan  States  divided  among  themselves  al!  of  Eu- 
ropean Turkey  except  Constantinople  and  a  sriiall  terri- 
tory adjoining  it  on  the  north.    For  some  years  previous 


226 


England^s  Progress 


tu  1914  Germany  had  been  getting  control  in  Turkey, 
lurnishin^  officers  to  train  its  aiiiiy  and  capital  for  its 

ijusiiiess  enterprises. 

Germany  planned  the  extension  of  German  influence 
and   control    through   the    Balkans   to    the    i^gean    and 
tiirou^ii  Ashi  Mirn^r  It)  tiu:  rich  plains  of  the  Tigris  and 
!./.■■     .     l'!i.'-:s        'The     ihin-C  icniKiiiibts    s-Might    unre- 
:      tid  1,  i'Utes  in  these  lands  for  their  surplus  man- 

ufactures. 1  lu  \  coveted  also  control  of  the  harbors  of 
Belgium  ai  :  i  1  1  1  They  sought  through  enlarging 
their  na\  v  t  j  h  ilK  ne:e  England's  supremacy  on  the  seas, 
and  tlun  in:.  ;.  i  f  i  win  a  colonial  empire  to  care  for 
their  ran   :L  jr  population.     They  would  build 

a  great  con lelL  ration  of  states  including  Germany,  Aus- 
tria, Hurigarw  t  u  Balkan  States  and  Turkey:  and  would 
corihirua  a  urand  railway  from  Constantinople  to  B.ikidavl 
wind  v\(  Id  tie  the  great  trunk  lines  leading  from  the 
l\fn  c  ukI  I)  r  ube  valleys  to  Constantinople  and  the  Per- 
siaii  Gull,  tJius  establishing  a  short  route  to  India.  The 
aims  i)\  (lerniairc  were  seconded  by  Austria.  Russia 
wanted  the  Ijalkans  too  and  Constantinople  and  free  ac- 
cess to  th.c  Mcditeinnincan  through  control  of  the  Black 
Sea,  the  Bosphorus  and  Dardanellc      ^'  '  iIsm  ^i 

outlet  to  trie  open  sea  on  the  north  .        n    -.  m- 

(hna\nan  fierdnsula  afid  >ome  parr  to  !  'ho  ;•  I  ,,.%'  \  \\\\h 
Its  Bahic  scacsncstn  lo]^h,uuJ  unis  (O'  '-^  I  to  the  cstal)- 
lishriicrit  of  either  a  German  or  a  .  r 

Lon;>tantiriople.  h,'vt  she  should  lose  her  Mndaerinuooia 
suprer!iac\  and  lier  hold  on  India.  She  had  a  dominion 
that  included  about  25  per  cent  of  the  habitable  land  of 
the  gh)l)e  an  1  over  27  per  cent  of  its  population  li  the 
Pan  ( ierni  inots'  dream  of  naval  supremacy  and  colonial 
empire  e\  er  came  true  the  Briton  knew  it  must  be  at  Fng- 


Causes  of  the  World  War 


227 


Id'     X    c     e     France  in  gaining  Morocco  in  1911  had 
a    n     f  o   arms  with   Germany.     And  since   the 

IdoiiKu-id-usbiaii  War  in  1870-71  the  French  had  talked 
of  a  future  war  of  revenge  when  they  should  recover 
their  lost  provinces,  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  As  to  Servia, 
its  size  had  been  almost  doubled  by  the  first  (191 2)  and 
second  (tqti)  l^alkan  wars  at  the  expense  of  Turkev 
and  Bulgaria.  A  part  of  this  added  territory  came  fr  1 
a  strip  of  land,  the  Sanjak  of  Novibazar,  which  before 
the  recent  Balkan  wars  was  a  Turkish  possession  running 
up  between  Servia  and  Montenegro  to  Austria.  The  lat- 
ter state,  encouraged  too  by  its  alU  (Germany,  had  long 
hoped  to  gain  thai  biin^,  since  lii.uugh  it  a  route  might 
be  had  to  the  Tizean  and  the  East  for  the  trade  of  these 
two  nations;  but  the  dividing  of  that  land  between  Ser- 
via and  Montenegro  at  the  close  of  the  war  thwarted 
Austria  in  that  purpose  and  placed  a  soHd  barrier  of  Slav 
domination  across  the  path  of  German-Austrian  ambition. 
During  the  last  centi  r\  ;  e  ever  present  active  forces 
have  been  felt  in  European  international  affairs,  the 
steady  pressure  as  of  a  slow-moving  glacier  of  Russia  to 
the  westward,  the  colonial  expansion  of  England,  and  the 
rise  of  Prussianized  Germany.  In  19 14  these  forces  came 
into  open  conflict.  Then  Europe  was  divided  in  19 14 
into  two  hostile  combinations,  heavily  armed.  The  Tri- 
ple Alliance  and  the  Triple  Lntente.  in.  ormer  Bis- 
marck's^creation,  including  Germany,  Austria  and  Italy, 
had  been  formed  (1881)  to  defend  Germany  from  the 
attacks  of  neighbors  west  and  east,  France  and  Russia, 
both  of  whom  had  lost  territory  to  Prussia  in  earlier  con- 
flicts. Italy  had  joined  the  Alliance  because  jealous  of 
French  expansion  along  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  and 
because  the  voiintr  nation  was  flattered  at  being  welcomed 


228 


England^ s  Progress 


into  the  circle  oi  the  lirCiit  Powers.  Her  traditional 
enemy,  liowei'er,  was  Austrc^  :  :hc:1  since  she  coveted  the 
ports  of  Albania  and  the    \un         ports  of  Trieste  an(f 

!^!ii!i]e,  hhe  was  opposed  to  AcrC-.a-  Balkan  policy  of 
further    expansion    along   the   Adriatic.      To    offset   the 

f  riple  Alliance  there  arose  (1907)  the  Triple  Entente, 
an  agreement  for  defense  between  Russia,  England  and 
France  iko'eh^joo"'  out .  of  the  Ihx^ii  .'VUiance  between 
France    and    f\u  (1893),   the    I     rente    Cordiale   be- 

tween I  ii^ltou  I  i  ranee  (1904)  and  the  Anglo-Rus- 
sian .,\ccord  oi  ( o^:;.n:,  Biitain  and  Kussia  (1907).  Both 
of  the^e  groups,  and  especially  the  Continental  members 
of  the  irroups,  suspicious  and  fearful  began  steadily  to 
increase  their  a,rmaments.  i'ortiiications  were  strength- 
ened, strategic  military  railways  constructed,  munition  fac- 
tories enlarged,  submarines  and  airships  built,  rapid  fire 
rifles,  ni  id]  IK  guns  and  cannon  manufactured  and  stored 
in  i^reat  (|uantities,  plans  for  military  campaigns  prepared 
an  i  n;  ran  on  gained  through  spies  of  the  defenses  of 
the  rival  powers.  In  camp  and  m  reserve  Germany  could 
muster  4  ^70,000  trauied  soldiers  and  France  3,670,000. 
These  c  J  11  ntive  military  operations  made  for  war. 
Twice  betme  1014  the  outbreak  almost  occurred.  In 
i^ii  when  i-rarue  got  Morocco  against  Germany's  will 
and  m  1913  when  Servia  at  the  close  of  the  Second  Bal- 
kan War  got  increased  territory  against  the  will  of  Aus- 
tria-! luniiarv.  I  lad  tiitrc  been  no  Triple  Alliance  guar- 
anteeing' Isi!"  '  .  '  '  •  \astria,  if  attacked,  tlic  Aus- 
trian uinnau  '  .  I  not  have  been  so  peremp- 
tory and  uureasuiuibie;  a  satisfactory  compliance  with  it 
might  }ra\a  beePi  possible.  Servia's  request  for  more 
time  for  deliberation,  or  suggestion  of  settlement  by  arbi- 
tration, might  have  been  agreed  to  and  thus  war  averted; 


Causes  of  the  World  War 


«29 


or  per  contra,  had  there  been  nn 

assurance    oi    aid   froi 


r- 


k"  .0; 


under  certain  conditions 

Servia's  resista'iec  to  Ai;-tr,a,  a 


a   ?  '• 


jr*    ,r,i\e 


been  lia  1  and  the  war  averted. 

Causative  of  the  war  were  such  forces  and  factors  as 
the  growth  of  nationalism,  the  rise  of  democracy,  pres- 
sure of  population,  the  birth  rate,  low  in  France,  high  in 
Germany  and  Russia,  trade  rivalries,  and  imperial  pro- 
grams of  colonial  and  naval  expansion.  In  1871  Ger- 
many's position  m  busmess  and  commerce  was  relatively 
low  compared  with  Great  Britain's;  but  by  1905  she  was 
the  chief  competitor.  Between  1875  and  1905  Great 
Britain's  total  import  and  export  business  increased  49%, 
Germany's  120%.  As  to  the  merchant  marine,  the  in- 
crease in  tonnage  was  for  Great  Britain  76%;  for  Ger- 
pany  220%.  Germany  was  set  upon  building  a  great 
colonial  empire  and  determined  also  to  challenge  Eng- 
land's sea  supremacy.  Von  Tirpitz's  statement  in  his  Ger- 
man naval  bill  of  1900  was  pointed  straight  at  England: 
**to  protect  Germany's  sea  trade  and      ;  .  .  .  there 

is  only  one  means:  Germany  must  have  u   fleet  so 

strong  that  even  for  an  adversary  with  the  u  a  ue^t  sea 
power,  a  war  against  it  would  involve  such  dangers  as  to 
imperil  his  own  position  in  the  world  .  .  .  the  German 
battle  fleet  should  be  as  strong  as  the  greatest  naval 
Pcrut  r.^'  A  race  between  the  two  nations  in  na\  al  arma- 
fing  many  millions  followed. 

I  he  German  character  and  Kultur  were  chief  factors 

in  pruducing  this  war.    Proud  of  their  industrial  and  com- 

*a '    t  ol:     ss,  puffed  up  with  their  learning  and  science, 

boastful  of  thi  r  educational  schemes  of  specialization  and 

efficiency,  unbalanced  by  reason  of  victories  at  arm^  Qver 


2  1 0 


England^^  Progress 


Denmark,  Austria  and  France,  unchristian,  materialistic, 

q^nical.  conceited,  worshipping  force,  glorifying  war,  and 

declaririi^  the  Teutons  superior  to  all  other  races  and  di- 
v'ncMv  .nn^ninrej  to  rule  the  world  their  leaders  looked 
tv  an  !  courted  battle,  and  in  particular  at  some 


■•%■  ' ! 


tinic  \\ 


I 


niiiind      Xui  onlv  the  militarists,  but  accord- 

statcnicfu   of   the   KaiNcr   the   riiajority  of  the 


•.'f)l)it; 


at  1908.    For 

sonu:  vcurs  it  hai'  h,-.-.  i..l  .  '■'•  '■'■I  '  ;.rman  navy  to 
(\rv\'^  .'  t-Ms:  '"!'.  ^"  -  Dav/'  \\h:ai  iiicant  in  the  minds  of 
thi       V  when  war  should  be  declared 

ao;a:n:.i  rjii^ianJ,  U)  :l\.:  teachings  aiiil  writings  of 
prominent  I  hhii  !'^- v  -  -  ''v^^nr^  and  army  officers  such  as 
Professor   I hcitschke  and  <  :        '  irdi  the  German 

nation  ha  j  bi  n  taught  to  th;  n  ■  r  as  a  good,  as  a 
iK-ce^sitv  ifi  a  fiaaiofhb  piaai'cr  (1eve1opnii:nt,  and  to  believe 
that  (1  r  lany's  destined  expansion  would  ere  long  pro- 
duce coal  t  with  England.  In  the  teachings  of  the  Pan- 
da ran  anists,  Grent  Britain  was  t\ 
that  had  acq  aire  J  d  fourth  of  t' 


ic:  gr 


eat  *'Robber  State" 
h  ung  it  from 


\\'  i'  a  R . 

c  i  a » ^  .  •  ^ 

t-'   ihea 

4.^   .    M.  ;         vie 

been  w 

i'    1  ?    .  - 

1  aiica 

Icrcnci 
build  I 
I 

tai      h 
present 

of  r '^ 
po  a 


uncivilized  races;  that  la  lord- 

•   a  a  seas:  aiui  that  iiad  U.^  •     c    ■•   .   t.^  undertake 

1     to  other  Powers  the  boundaries  of  their  states 

e    1  ncies.      Her  numerous  possessions  had  not 

a  av  lic!  owii  bircngth,  they  said,  but  had  merely 

to  her  as  the  results  of  timely  and  selfish  inter- 

hctueeii  otrita    nations.     Ilcr  wont  had  been  to 

eailitions  and  alliances  against  any  power  of 

that    prorniscil    to    iu'eotne    ilominant,    lurnishing 

money  who  did  the  fuil  tiio      She  was  always 

t  the  settlement  of  the  conflict,  playing  the  role 

r  in   the  interest  ol  preserving  the  h^]inc('  of 
!t  ahvays  to  her  own  advantage  d.rui  u^  the  injury 


Causes  of  the  World  War 


%-\ 


of  the  strongest  European  nation.  So  she  had  dealt  with 
ta  a  1,  France,  Holland;  she  npw  sought  to  injure  Ger- 

naoA.^  liiey  claimed  that  Fngland's  ptreatnevs  wais  in  part 
a  gift  el  Germany;  that  through  Prussia's  assistance 
(ji        a  had  won  victories  over  Louis  X '  V  Na- 

p  ih  on;  and  that  but  for  Prussia's  engagement  ui  Eng- 
hiurs  continental  enemies  Great  Britain  would  not  have 
iteii  able  during  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-1763) 
to  oust  1  ranee  from  the  new  world,  to  win  naval  suprem- 
acy and  enlarge  her  colonial  possessions.  England's  rule 
over  varied  peoples  was  an  unrighteous  rule,  justly  hated 
by  the  subjects.  To  them  England  was  a  hypocritical, 
Pharisaical  nation,  proclaiming  its  mission  to  disseminate 
everywhere  ideas  of  liberty,  justice,  and  democracy  yet 
actually  guilty  meanwhile  of  the  most  criminal  acts  of 
suppression,  intolerance  and  tyranny,  hi  support  of  the 
charge  were  cited  the  revolt  of  the  American  colonies, 
the  struggle  of  the  Boers,  the  treatment  of  Ireland  and 
the  subjugation  of  India.  The  British  Empire  was  a  pre- 
tentious sham;  it  lacked  inherent  ?♦  a-'h  they  said. 
Widely  scattered  its  various  portions,  divided  by  oceans, 
inhabited  by  diverse  races,  lacking  genuine  unity  and  hom- 
ogeneity: Its  members  were  held  together  only  by  the 
British  navy.  Were  this  defensive  band  once  severed  the 
colonies  and  dependencies  would  fall  away  from  England 
like  leaves  from  a  withered  branch.  The  English  peo- 
ple were  spoken  of  as  unvirile  and  decadent.  Snughv  en- 
sconced in  their  island  they  had  lost  their  martial  quali- 
ties and  could  rat  successfully  contend  with  a  strong  foe. 
Their  imperial  glory  would  depart  as  was  the  case  with 
Rome.  The  I  tons  had  overthrown  the  decadent  Em- 
pire of  the  Le-a:-  ai  the  fifth  century,  and  brought  low 
pretentious  Austria  and  pretentious  France  in  the  eigh- 


■)  1  J 

i*w«         \      Ami 


Englan^s  Prog 


r£  5S 


4    I    i  1    I 


\\ 


Lv  WCH1I  1  now  humble 
a  had  to  fight  the  smaller  German  states, 

ncc   ill  order   to  expand   into   a   migfhtv 

Hermait  I  mpire  to  realize  it^       -luil 

o  fight  to  a  finish  with  i^rit- 

Ci    own 


feenth  and  nineteenth  centuries,      riic. 
England. 

Austria    : 
naticm  ;  and 
ambit lo!  -  s 

am.   \\\v  v.d 


'  1  c 


.  ;' :d   alread\'  staked  off  a^  iiw 

most  ii!  tfie  sparsely  occupied  and  undeveloped  lands  of 
the  earth 

And  according  tu  the  Teutonic  philosophy  for  the  Ger- 
mans to  cease  to  fight  was  to  cease  to  live.  They  said  that 
Geniiany  had  more  people  than  it  could  profitably  employ, 
that  tilt  art  I  suitable  for  tillage  had  been  almost  ex- 
hausted, as  we!!  as  the  |K)ssibilities  of  increase  from  the 
cmph)ynicnt  of  scientific  agricultural  processes,  that  in- 
dustries aiul  iTianiifcctures  had  grown  at  a  rate  far  in 
excess  of  the  iJoiiicstCi   needs,  that  more  lands  and  inar- 


I, 


kets  .had  1 
anil  TM a nu  r actu 
at  the  expense 
w  'd  r   e  \  ■  c  n  t  u  a  I !  \ 

ha.!   hetOi    c-iN 

lev  t  .> '  -     :    ;i. 

.  -  ■  X  >  > '    : ;  N .  I  h . 


s(  )i?  i  e  w  n  c 


i  5 


1  f 


s-. 


eo 


r  iier  surplus  popuLit     a 
hese  could  only  be  had 

nURi   power  and  that  this  meant 
u     I    itrhtiii.     According  to  their  Re- 
will  and  should  take  who  can.     War 
d  to  the  German  mind   as  profitable, 

-^^  -^  paving  business  an  J  reic  too  that 
the  highest  virtues.  the  territorial 
indemnities,  such  as  the  5,000,000,000 

francs  g«Jtten  at  the  eonclusion  of  the  Franco-Prussian 
war.  pro\-cil  that  \v,.\v  for  Germany  had  heeii  a  gainful 
occu|pitA  n  W  ar,  they  preached,  disciplined  the  spirit 
of  niaip  cle\citcii  liiiii  above  materialism,  ga\'c  hiin  vision, 
and  developed  endurance,  selt-sacritice,  courage  and  like 
heroic  virtues.  General  Bernhardi  proclaimed  that 
"might  IS  right  and  that  right  is  decided  by  war.''  **Gnd 
Will  see  ti>  it/'  said  Treitschke,  Professor  of  Mndrr^^  I 
tory  in  the  I  ni'versity  of  Berlin,  "that  war  .:  c/^  d\s  -r. 


^' 


Causes  of  the  World  War 


as  a  drastic  niedicine  for  the  human  race/'  He  taught 
too  that  the  leadership  of  the  Teuton  was  a  part  of  the 
divine  order,  and  that  Providence  was  leading  his  coun- 
trymen straight  on  to  a  conflict  with  the  British.  The 
combat  would  issue,  he  believed,  in  the  triumph  n^ 
man  culture,  "the  realization  of  the  German  world-vision 
in  all  the  phases  and  departments  of  human  hfe  aiivl  en- 
ergy; in  religion,  poetry,  science,  art.  politics,  and  social 
endeavor,"  the  triumph  of  "truth  instead  of  falsehood  in 
the  deepest  and  gravest  preoccupations  of  the  human 
mind;  German  sincerity  instead  of  British  hypocrisy."  ^ 
But  when  the  looked-for  war  with  England  should  come 
the  Germans  hoped  to  have  it  with  Great  Britain  alone — 


the  Gc 


rinan  arin'e  aful 


"^  <""r '  1 


the  Britisl 


!  ai'niv 


navy — a     ;    lot  as  I  out  to  be  Germc 

well-nigh  t        vhole  of  Europe  and  America. 


and 
list 


not  expecting  the  La?     n 
dians   to  muster  as   they 
planned  to  whip  France  at 
disappointed  when  I 
though  falsely,  that  Ln. 


s,    f\ustralians,  Ir  •  .  .o;.J    i ;  - 

o  England's  1       c 

sia  first  and  were  bitt      v 

iiiierfered.     They  assertco, 

^  acted  treacherously  toward 


Germany,  that  at  the  first  she  talked  peace,  but  all  along 
really  planned  war,  that  she  only  waited  until  Germany's 
enemies  were  numerous  and  strong  enough  to  make,  as  she 
felt,  certain  Germany's  defeat,  and  then,  in  keeping  with 
her  habit,  added  her  mighty  weight  of  hostility  with  the 
hope  of  utterly  crushing  Germany.  The  bitterness  of 
their  hatred  was  reflected  in  sermon  and  hymn.* 

*  "You  will  wc  hate  with  a  lasting  hate, 
We  will  never  forego  our  hate, 
Hate  by  water  and  hate  by  land, 
Hate  oif  the  head  and  hate  of  the  hand, 
Hate  of  the  hammer  and  hate  of  the  crown 
Hate  of  seventy  millions,  choking  down. 
We  love  as  one,  we  hate  as  one. 

We  have  one  foe  and  one  alone " 

ENGLAND  1* 


2.14 


England's  Progress 


h  t 


*-      1 


S. 


But 

not  be   i.uJ 

bu  attest :     I 
— tfiar    hef 

Grey 

in  ca 

the  Sai*ajC\-( 
that  \\*''t;.:  K' 

Brit. tin  ;in!'l   i 
but  (icniiarn   wnuiv!  not 
tion,  being  liinvillniL; 
bv  arbitration  :  tiia" 


csponsibility    of    the     1014    outbreak    can- 

a*-    the    door    of    I'ru^iend,      Several    things 

i\cr  army  and  the  facts 
.;.    _n    Affairs,    bir    Edward 


VI.     »   i  I  s<  %.. 


:     'S'vc  AubO-'  I  the  fullest  satisfnction 

ed  Servian  officers  involved  in 

so  as  to  prevent  an  hVu^trian  attack 

h:  :vs'  .V    oming  in  t     -i  !  n^rt  Servia; 

I  Vance,  Italy        •  Great 


{  I 


..aJ  a  way  out  of  n     trouble 

t  to  this  method  of  media- 

i      I    rce  Austria  into  a  settlement 

h  to  restrain  Russia's  mobili- 

/ath^f)  in  the  iioe'e,-''   lO  Oer\ia  ;  that  lie  helil  off  support 

u,  l\us>\.i  :no!   fT.i>r„r  after  they  hegaii  wair:  am!  that  he 


hihored    Un 


I  riLjhiruJ  > 


1. 1  r 


n  reu"*e)sai  s 


ue'h  the  neutaauitv  of  Belgium  was 
\anhited,  an  iin^rcs'-lvc  act  on  nenriafiv^s  |oirt  that  was 
cofitrarv  to  her  treaty  obligations  and  f hat  threatened 
ife.  The  German  Ambassador  t  London, 
now  kv  declared,  **We  encouraged  the  Aus- 
e 0  Pi  Minister  to  attack  Servia  although  Ger- 
n  were  not  involved.  We  rejected  the  British 
of  mediation — although  Servia  had  accepted 
alnif'Si  trie  whjde  of  the  ultimatum.  'V\h'  ^ent  an  ulti- 
m  nuni  ti)  ih-trograd  merely  because  of  the  Russian  mobi- 
1i/at)ii,  .  .  .  and  \e  declared  war  on  Russia  although 
the  If/ar  pKoiged  liis  word  that  he  wouki  not  order  a 
man  tn  mareh  as  long  as  negotiations  were  pending.  Iti 
view  eii  the  abo\  e  facts  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  whole 

;  ;\ '  '•'  •;   outside  Germanv,  places  the  entire 
'    !':    World  War  upon   our  shoulders. 
f  lu    I      '  ^      :  e     r  England's  sea  supremacy  met 

fi'ee    detern;  neh    a'-  I    e     .  !  raidd' 


e  w  d :  / 1 . 
'    1  • 


r- 


Causes  of  the  World  War 


^35 


"Behold      they  cry,   '*she  is  grown  soft  and  strength- 

-      '^  nd  memories  changed  to  fear  and  fret." 

^  V   -  ho  hast  watched  through  ages  that  are  length- 

Whom  have  I  feared,  and  when  did  I  forget? 

What  sons  of  mine  have  shunned  thy  whorls  and  races? 
Have  I  not  reared  for  thee  time  and  again, 
And  bid  go  forth  to  share  thy  fierce  embraces, 
Sea-ducks,  sea-wolves,  sea-rovers,  and  sea-men  I 

W  fierefore,  O  Sea,  I  standing  thus  before  thee, 
"^^oetch  forth  my  hands  unto  thy  surge  and  say: 

di  '  en  they  come  forth  to  seek  this  empire  o'er  thee. 
And  I  go  forth  to  meet  them — on  that  day 

God  grant  to  us  the  old  Armada  weather. 

The  wnidb  that  rip,  the  heavens  that  stoop  and  lour — 

Not  till  the  Sea  and  England  sink  together. 

Shall  they  be  masters!     Let  them  boast  that  hour!'  ^ 

REFERENCES 

I.     Cramb:  England  and  Germany,  p.  123. 

2.     Ernest  Lissauer:  Chant  of  Hate  against  England. 
3.     R.  E.  Vernede:  England  to  the  Sea. 


ill  AFTER  XVII 

'E'SiAASD'y  I'.xrkXXi  i'.   rX'T*'^  AND  -li.\RH 

AbQL'illl   1914-1916,  l..L.-nli  GEORGE, 

I  (/ !  6 192  f 

On  ]unt'  ::-•     ^^  '  :     \-    '    '  ikr   1  ^  rjinand  and  his  witc 
were  assa^-s  -i.  -         —■  .  ^1  of  Bosnia,     i  hi 

fulv  2],  1914,  tilt  Ausin:u\  UuvLi  ::;!.tai,  after  investi- 
gatini^  the  circumstances  or  the  niiirvicr,  sent  to  the  Ser- 
vian ( jov  ernmcnt  i  J  cument  declaring  "that  the  murder 
was  ci)ncci\-ea  at  !)dL!Tavie,  tfiat  the  murderers  received 
the  arm:,  and  lioiiihN  witii  which  rhcy  were  equipped  from 

tat  ion  of  the  crimi- 
nged  and  carried 
lis."  Ten  demands 
:t  a  I'k  p' V  t')  whicfi 
Jen;''  So  vhctai- 
'!i..p.vaiioii,  so  brief 


..  i. 


jr^-.;  > 


Scr\ian,  ofticers  ais  \  th-a 
rials  an  J  their  aniih  to  Bu>[:::a 
out  !n-  leaiJing  Ser\aan  frontier  Diii 
were  made  of  the  Ser\aan  rh,v' 
woiiki  he  exrierted  watliifi  ?•  ■ 
tonal  ^\a:is  the  roue  (4  tios  -•:  itr  . 
was  the  tone  allowed  for  respectmg  its  requirements,  and 
so  extrenie  were  its  demands,  it  appeared  as  an  ulti- 
matum to  he  ahriost  a  declaration  of  war.  On  July  24, 
Servta  in  conjunction  with  Russia  asked  Austria  for  an 
extension  of  rirne  for  making  answer  but  this  request 
was  denied.  In  tier  reply  of  July  25,  made  ten  minutes 
before  the  time  hrnit  expired,  Ser\aa  ciansentcd  to  all  the 
conditions  and  apologies  demanded  except  the  specific 
requirement  that  Austrian  officials  should  he  allowed  to 
participate  m  the  mvcbtifi^Unn  (4   tr;e  cnnie  tiie  Scro. an 

236 


England's  Entrance  into  tJu  Great  War       237 

Government  was  to  conduct  on  Ser\  Ian  >o\\\  a  demand 

that  a  rnititrn  could  hardly  allow  without  injury  to  its 
in  lejien  Uice   and  dignity.      "The   Servian  reply/'   said 

'^'-  ^  vioard  ^  o-cy,  "involved  the  sfreatest  humiliation  to 
5cr\aa  tfiai  i  have  ever  seen  a  count'-v  undergo."  But 
it  ilivl  not  appease  ,\ustri,a.  On  the  ■  •■  -■  Austrian 
•  nt  announced    tinu        r        s    reply    wa^   "filled 

uci'  oa;  spirit  of  dishonesty"  and  *haa  die  Servian  Gov- 
as  not  trying  to  pu  i  to  intrigues  against 

Hungarian   mor  This   hostile    state- 

ment aroio:;d  Russia  whose  i^o\CinuM:nt  at  once  noticed 
^lustna  \  hcv-  27th)  that  it  would  oinmsc  anv  in\aiMon  of 
Servians  terr  v  by  Austria.  Immediately  dcrnKirrv 
was  heard  from.  In  a  semi-official  statenic  m  it  rale  ob- 
jection to  anv  outside  power  interfering  \  '  » 
Servian  (imirnh  It  was  really  backing  Austria.  hhe 
British  Foreign  Secretary  proposed  that  an  attempt  1  e 
made  to  find  a  way  out  of  the  entanglement  through  the 


?     s 


mediation  of  a  Conference  of  Ambassadors  to  -e 
in  London,  representing  France,  Italy,  Germany  and  Eng- 
land.     I  ra-  rnaaposal  was  wadcomed  by  Tfniv  and  France 
but  was  da    a  i  by  both  Germany  and  A       a       The  lat- 
ter country   would  brook  no  delay  and  fort    a.     a      sued 
(July  28th)  its  declaration  of  war.    This  at  once  started 
the  iriolali/arion  of  the   Ra^sian  army,  the  Czar  order- 
ing by  an  imperial  ukase  all  reservists  to  the  colors  July 
29th.     The  next  dav  Germany  sent  to  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment a  demand  10  stop  its  mobilization,  and  stated 
thar   I  reply  to  its  order  was  expected  within  twenty-four 
hours      Germany's  threat  brought  from  England  forth- 
w  ti     J    4  30th)  the  significant  notification  that  in  case 
a  gener  d  conflict  should  occur  Great  Britain  "could  not 
St    a     d    4  and  see  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe  de- 


238 


England's  Progress 


srn')\cc.i/^  fvusbia  paid  nu  attention  tn  Gcrmany^s  ulti- 
matum, but  continued  the  rapid  mobilization  of  her  army. 
(kmi'dux  tr  I  issued  its  declaration  of  war,  August  ist, 
|)!  oxokuiir  thereby  immediately  the  general  mobilization 

order  nt  l/'raiice.  Russia's  ali\e  ( leiTiKHiv  counted  on 
Fiiul  jnJ's  keeping  out  of  tiie  eoriHiet.  l-'iighiiui  was  aNkeJ 
to  reinain  neutral  on  the  condition  that  Germany  wmlJ 
proniisi-  nut  to  attack  the  northern  i.r  western  coasts  of 
France  nor  to  molest  the  maritime  commrre  if  France; 
but  to  this  England  would  not  agree.  Nor  would  I  - 
land  ennseiit  to  Germany's  entering  with  her  army  Bid- 
gian  territory  in  order  to  ^ct  at  France.  The  neutrality 
of  BeiL^  uni  had  been  gua  teed  by  the  Great  Powers, 
Ijernnun  nicluded,  by  three  treaties,  the  first  made  in 
[831.  the  second  in  1839  and  die  third  in  1870.  1  a  up- 
land's consent  to  the  passage  was  vainly  sought  by  the 
pledpte  that  Genininv  would  indemnify  Belgium  after  the 
war  for  all  losses  and  would  "safeguard  the  iiite^ntx  and 
sovereignty  of  Belgium."  The  formal  assurance  was 
given  that  even  in  case  of  armed  conflict  wit  1  :  ani 
Gcrmnnv  would  under  no  pretext  whatever  anrrx  Bel- 
gian territory.  But  Germany  deadal  to  attaek  I  ranee 
through  Belgium,  notwithstanding  treaty  obligations. 
August  uaL  tile  (ie!-!nan  iin\ernnient  sent  to  Belgium  it^ 
ultimatum,  I'lu.  h:d  tiie  fkh^ien  and  French  Govern- 
ments at  otue  t  )  declare  martial  law  and  King  Albert  of 

lleluliun  to  telegraph  Klin?  George  of  England  for  diplo- 

n  it  a    ntervention  to  safeguard  the  integrity  of  Belgium. 

in  n  xt  day  came  an  uld  tum  from  T  ■'  :  i  )  (  ur- 
inan\^  denninding  that  a  p:^./a:.sv  to  rr  .-vi  Leigiuni  S 
neutrahtv  shonld  be  *ii\-en,  by  12  o'clock  that  night,  dlie 
premie  was  not  given  and  England  forthwith  issued  its 

deehu  atnan  uf  war  against  Germany  August  4th.     The 


EnfflaniFs  Entrance  into  the  Great  War       239 

German  army  then  crossed  the  border  and  opened  fire 
on  Belgian  forts.     Germany's  attack  era  Liege,  Belgium, 

August  sth,  soon  "turned  all  Fiiropc  into  an  armed 
camp.'  i^a  h  n  Wilson's  offer  of  the  good  offices  of 
the  United  -  ^  effect  a  peaceful  settlement  availed 

nothing.  August  ^'^ih  Austna-iiungary  declared  war  on 
Russin:  August  8th  Portugal  took  Great  Britain's  side; 
August  9th  Servia  declared  war  against  Germanv:  Au- 
gust TOth  i  -aince  declared  war  on  Austrhi;  ;n:a  \an:ast 
13th  Austria  and  Great  Britain  each  declared  war  on  the 
other.     On    \         t  7th  the  German  Government  sought 

to  win  Ital)  a third  member  of  the  Triple  Alliance  to 

the  support  of  Austria  and  Gr-nn^ny,  but  Italy  held  firm 
to  her  neutrality  claiming  th  as  not  bound  by  that 

Alliance  in  this  instance  since  Germany  and  Austria  were 
engaged  m  an  aggressive,  not  defensive,  war  Tn  May, 
!  n  c.  Italy  took  the  side  of  the  Allies.  A  few  weeks 
after  the  opening  of  hostilities  Japan  came  to  England's 
aid  in  keeping  with  the  terms  of  the  Anglo-Japanese 
treaty  of  1905.  Turkey  and  Bulgaria  sided  later  with 
Germany  and  Austria. 

For  four  years  (1914-1918)  warfare  the  fiercest  and 
on  the  mosf-  gigantic  scale  was  waged  involving  in  some 
way  nearly  all  the  nations  of  the  globe.  Against  the 
four  nations,  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  Turkey  and 
Bulgaria,  or  against  some  one  of  the  four  war  was  waged 
by  twenty-six  nations.  Five  more  nations,  Peru,  Bolivia, 
d  D   mingo  an  i   L'ruguay,  severed  diplomatic  rela- 

tions with  some  member  of  the  German  Alliance.  O  dy 
fifteen  of  the  nations  of  the  earth,  and  these  minor  ones, 
maintained  their  neutrality,  namely  Switzerland,  Persia, 
Sweden,  >^orway,  >  Netherlands,  Paraguay,  Salva^ 

dor,  Colombia,  Chile,  Denmark,  Abyssinia,  Argentina, 


.  i 


.  nj 


2dO 


Engl  I 


Progress 


Mexico,  and  Venezuela;  and  these  all  felt  the  evil  cfiects 
of  tft    war  In  various  vexing  restrictions  on  their  com- 

nicrce  and  life.  The  total  casualties  of  the  war  were  fully 
40,000,000  not  counting  tiie  \ictinis  of  inassacre,  de- 
portation, famine  and  epidemics  though  such  losses  are  in 
lari!:c  decree  hv-products  of  the  u  ;ir.  in  the  conflict,  there 
were  \ei  7,600,000  killed,  over  6,000,000  permanently 
1  s  d  led  and  over  12,500,000  less  severely  wounded. 
.More  persuns  were  killed  and  maimed  in  this  one  war 
priibabhv  than  m  adl  the  battles  of  med'^vnl  nnd  modern 
history.     About  60,000,000  men  were  ,  the  Cen- 

tral Po  vers  fi]rni<?hing  over  19,500,000,  the  Allied  and 
Associata  di    1'  over  39,600,000.     Of  the   60,000,- 

OO)    on       _  kilhd    and   one-tenth   were   made 

human   \   a    k  \  nds  upon  thousands  of  women, 

chddren  and  decrepit  ouj  men  were  made  dependent, 
hungry  and  homeless;  billions  of  dollars'  worth  of  prop- 
erty were  ruthlessly  destroyed;  costly  cruisers  and  hun- 
dreds ()\  inerchaiit  vessels  with  their  precious  cargoes  w  ere 
sent  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea;  rich  cities  were  pillaged  and 
burnt;  and  majestic  cathedrals  with  their  precious  mas- 
terpieces i^\  art  arid  libraries  with  their  treasured  orig- 
inal manuscripts  a  ml  r'aic;  volumes  were  bombarded  into 
ht  i|        f  ru  ir     Using  siege  guns,  torpedo  boats,  subma- 


ries,    /o 


d  pimiins,    airships,    diim    dum   bullets,    tiirpinine, 
ting  scatter  molten  metal   and  poisonous 


snelis  tnat   hiirs 


Lfasc; 


bombs   and   arrows     IrornKd    from  balloons   and 


lit  \\k  r  a ; r  c? 


raft,  the  combatants  fcmprht  in  air  and  water, 
abeore  and  under  the  earth.  Thepassions  of  peoples  were 
htirred  as  never  before.    The  money  cost  of  the  war  was 


{)\a*r  $  I 


86,300,000,000.     At  times  the  daily  cost  of  sup- 

rtin}4  the  arndr^  wis  '^6o,ooo,000. 

The  ria\y  excepted^  =     ^.'    id  was  unprepared  on  enter- 


England^s  Entrance  into  the  Great  War      241 


mi^  the  war.  The  appeals  of  b^maj  Roberts  in  IQ13  f-u- 
universal  military  service  as  a  defence  against  ti  d  t- 
ening  militarism  of  Germany  fell  on  deaf  ears.  Labor 
was  against  the  plan  and  political  parties  disfavored  the 
diversion  of  funds  from  the  navy  to  the  army  that  such 
a  plan  involved.  Compulsory  service  was  denounced  by 
the  War  Minister  "as  a  political  and  military  disaster/' 
The  coutitrv  was  satisfied  with  its  voluntary  Territorial 
'  t  fo  ne  defence  of  263,000.  Public  sentiment 
was  divided  as  to  England's  duty  when  the  conflict  started 
on  the  continent.  Leading  Liberals  and  Radicals  and  such 
journa-  '      '^aily  News  vigorously  advocated  neu- 

trality,    i  d  y  and  Mr.  Burns,  Cabinet  members, 

resigned  when  Endand  entered  the  war.  About  the 
country  too  were  pacifists,  conscientious  objectors  and 
non-militant  socialists  of  varied  degree.  But  the  great 
bulk  of  the  people  felt  that  Russia  and  France  should  be 
supported  by  Fngland.  The  great  majority  of  the  La- 
borites  and  Liberals,  the  Unionists,  the  Ulsterites  and 
Irish  Nationalists  all  backed  the  Government  in  its  dec- 
laration of  war.  As  the  fight  progressed,  and  the  atro- 
cious, brutal  nature  of  German  warfare,  as  conducted  in 
Belgium,  became  known,  and  the  immensity  of  Ger- 
many's military  preparation  and  plans  were  revealed,  all 
classes  and  parties  saw  that  England  was  in  the  right, 
sank  their  differences,  postponed  their  political  disputes 
and  |)resented  a  solid  front  to  the  foe.  **Britain  would 
not  sheathe  the  sword,"  said  Premier  Asquith,  "until 
Belgium  had  recovered  all  and  more  than  all  that  she  had 
sacrificed,  untu  France  was  adequately  secured  against 
the  menace  of  aggression,  until  the  rights  of  the  smaller 
nationalities  were  placed  on  an  unassailable  foundation, 
until  the  military  dominion  of  Prussia  was  fully  and 


1-1  Jt 


EnglaniPs  Progress 


finally  Jestroved"  *'We  are  fighting  for  a  worthv  pur- 
pose,'' declared  King  George,  *'for  treaty  obligations 
.  .  .  for  tlu  protection  of  the  public  law  of  I  iirope.'* 
"IJutv;'  'i'atriotism,''  ^'Sacrifice"  hecame  tlic  national 
watciiwords,  and  so  devoted  became  popular  spirit  that 
univiisal  conscription  was  cheerfully  supported. 

Kncr^ctic    conduct    of    the    war   necessitated    Cabinet 
J"  -.^.^s      l^rcmoo-  ,\M|uith  formed  a  Coaliti^^a  Mmistry, 

.  ^  .:  ?!  eight  Unionists  and  one  Laborli  i  fiis  Cabi- 
net of  twefitv  rvo.  set  up  also  a  special  War-Committee 
of  six  niinistc!  s  of  which  he  was  chairman  and  added 
a  hah  fiundred  other  committees  in  charge  of  various  war 
matters.  IJe-vO  '.o-:oc*a  the  Chancellor  of  the  Excheq- 
lua-  \\o.x  oaooo,  raoai  :  =  :  '      "   "'■■ent.  Ministry  of 

Mi  aoi         a  ining  diss  \     iiith's  dila- 

turv  Wait  anj  see"  policy  aiiu  becing  the  necessity  of 
Speeding  u}^  the  military  p^epnrj^*nn<?  if  the  war  was 
to  be  won  he  dared  to  p  a  radical  change  in  or- 

ganization. He  demanded  that  absolute  control  of  the 
conduct  of  the  war  should  be  put  into  the  hands  of  a 
committee  of  four  of  whicli  he  was  a  member  which 
should  have  daily  sessions.     Mr.  Asquith  was  to  be  only 

an  advison^  and  consultative  member."  As  the  Prime 
.Minisier  would  not  agree  to  thus  '^efface  himself"  Lloyd 
George  resigned  December  5,  19 16,  and  as  the  Premier 
was  conscious  that  he  could  not  carry  on  the  war  without 
tie.   \l  r  of  Munitions  he  resigned.     The  King  sent 

!  leader,  Mr.  Bonar  Law,  but  as  Mr.  As- 

qa  :  r  : Vsed  to  cooperate  with  him  as  Chief  and  he 
kncu  tJic  hour  and  nation  demanded  the  Welsh  states- 
inaii  he  stood  aside  and  the  commission  went  to  Lloyd 
(...icorgc. 

Wonderiul  the  career  of  this  British  Chieftain.     He 


/^  tut  ranee  into  the  Great  War       243 

w^as  born  in  Manchester,  January  17,  1863,  his  father  a 
school  teacher  sprung  from  the  farming  people  of  South 
Wales.    David  at  the  age  of  three  witnessed  the  sale  at 
auction  of  his  widowed  mother's  household  effects.    The 
widow  and  her  two  children  were  to  have  their  home  now 
with  her  brother,   Richard  Lloyd,   a  shoemaker  and  a 
Nf   Conformist   at   Llanystumdy,    a   village   of   North 
\\  ales.     The  uncle  instructed  the  boy,  struggling  himself 
over  the  elements  of  French  and  Latin  that  he  might 
teach  the  apt  pupil.     He  spent  his  year's  savings  to  give 
him  a  legal  education.     When  at  twenty-one  David  had 
passed  his  examinations  and  was  now  a  solicitor  he  had 
not  three  guineas  with  which  to  buy  the  solicitor's  official 
robe.     He  quickly  earned  it  at  desk  work.     Courage, 
ambition  and  vision  belong  to  this  man.     As  a  boy  of 
twelve  he  defied  the  teacher  and  minister  who  tried  to 
make  him  say  the  creed  in  church.     When  the  Rector 
refused  permission   to  bury  an  old   -\uii-Conformist  in 
the  church  yard  by  the  side  of  his  daughter's  grave,  the 
young  solicitor  counseled  his  clients  to   tear   down  the 
railings,  go  in  and  inter  the  remains  by  force  if  necessary. 
The  case  having  been  taken  to  court  and  appealed  until 
it  reached  the  final  tribunal,  the  decision  of  the  Lord 
Chief  Justice  declared  the  young  solicitor  right  in  law. 
Interesting  this  abstract  from  his  diary  when  at  the  age 
of  seventeen  on  a  trip  to  London  he  saw  for  the  first  time 
the  House  of  Commons:    **Went  to  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment.    Very  much  disappointed  with  them.  ...  I  will 
say  I  eyed  the  assembly  in  the  spirit  in  which  William 
the  Conqueror  eyed  England  on  his  visit  to  Edward  the 
Confessor — as    the    reign    of    his  .  future    domain.      O 
Vanity  I"     Before  thirty  he  was  a  member  of  this  body, 
at  forty  he  was  a  Cabinet  Minister,  at  forty-five  he  be- 


01 


En^tan^s  Pro/rress 


came 


1  ' !  ♦ '»  ' 


,.11. 


Fv 


and  at  fntv 


I.     J    ;    4    1  *>^ 


CI 

\  1  !  ti  I  s  t  i  '  r 

\\  lu  Ui  I    is  Minister  of  Munitions  or  as  Chief  of  the 

govcniiTicnt  f.hu^d  neorgc  ever  speeded  up  the  war  ma- 
chinery, i!  "unless  we  quicken  our  movement, 
damnatio!!  u  !  n  the  sacred  cause  for  which  so 
much  gallant  ''  :  Ikih  iiowed.'*  lie  created  his  War 
Cabinet  ^  r  imposed  of  himseli  a  liberal,  and  of 
three  I  fiirriists  and  one  Laborite.  General  Smuts  of 
South  Airica  was  later  admitted  to  this  inner  council. 
1  he  Ihih  Bonar  Law,  was  made  Chancellor  of 
ttic  I  \  Leader  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
New  h  partriunts  lor  control  of  shipping,  of  food,  la- 
bor, I  e  niini  enforcement  of  the  blockade,  public 
service  arui  the  like  were  multiplied  until  the  ministry 
niniiheied  eight) -ei^lit.  New  administrative  committees 
witii  si  e  lal  activities  were  set  up  by  the  hundreds  Bv 
se\eral  ni:\v  Military  Service  Bills,  compulsion  to  serve 
\vas  impubUii  eventually  on  all  men  physically  fit  and 
not  exempted  on  account  of  occupation  in  essential  indus- 
tries from  eighteen  to  fifty  years  of  age.  Railroads 
canals,  mines,  ship  yards  and  munition  factories  were 
taken  over  bv  the  crovernment  and  regulation  of  prices, 
wages  and  output  in  manufactures  and  of  the  uses  to 
which  hin  J  may  be  put  in  agriculture  was  undertaken  by 
tilt  stile  i<ationinp:  niid  price-fixing  of  food  staples  fol- 
lowed. In  every  department  of  economic  life,  whether 
production^  manufacture,  exchange,  transportation, 
means  of  communication  or  conscription  military  needs 
were  iii\  eii  pit  a  ty  over  civilian.  Trade  Unons  were  led 
to  prin  e  iin  strikes  during  the  war  and  their  restricted 
rules  comermng  skilled  labor  were  modfied  in  the  inter- 
ests of  increase  of  products  so  that  by  a  process  of  so- 


England^s  Entrance  into  the  Great  War 


Aim     fio#"      ^ 


called   *M)hiition''   unskilled  workers   and  women  were 
allowed  to  do  tasks  or  parts  of  task-  which  had  been  for- 
bidden I    em  formerly  but  for  w  wk\    were  after  a 
little  trau  inij  quite  well  fitted.      Ihofits   and  speculation 
were  restricted  and  the  liquor  trade  was  limited  by  special 
acts.     The  hours  of  sale  were  curtailed,   treating  and 
credit   forbidden   and   the   sale   of   spirits   of   excessive 
strengths  was  prohibited.     Temperance  was  promoted 
too    by   providing    facilities    for   non-alcoholic    refresh- 
niciits.      By   income    taxes,    graduated    super-taxes    and 
excess  profits   taxes   as  high  as   70  per  cent  and  over 
the    annual    revenues    of   the    government   were    quad- 
rupled, yet  the  expenditures  were  on  such  a  tremendous 
scale  the  national  debt  was  increased  ten-fold.     Great 
Britain  was  taking  the  fourth  part  of  every  well-to-do 
citizen's  intome  and  spent  some  years  $300,000,000  on 
the    army,    $100,000,000    on    the    navy,    and    $2,000,- 
000,000  in  the  work  of  the  munition  department.     In 
the  munition  factories  were  employed  soon   2,000,000 
workers,  one-tenth  of  whom  were  women,  many  working 
at  times  twelve  hours  a  day  seven  days  in  the  week.    The 
annual  output  of  munitions  of  every  sort — rifles,   car- 
tridges, machine  guns,  howitzers — multiplied  thirty      Id. 
By  the  early  spring  of  19 16  an  army  of  4,000,000  i 
had  been  raised,  and  among  them  were  the  very  flov 
of  British  youth,  sons  of  the  nobility  and  of  the  profes- 
sional,  literary  and  University  classes.    Dotting  the  coun- 
try were  rude  recruiting  stations  and  training  camps.    At 
docks,  store  houses  and  depots  and  railroad  sidings  were 
armies  of  laborers  busy  handling  rations,   fuel,  horses, 
fodder  and  all  sorts  of  army  supplies.     Recreation  huts, 
cinema    theatres,   lecture   courses,   schools    for    training 
motor  drivers,  hospitals  for  animals  and  for  men,  can- 


246 


England's  Progress 


teeii  8tarlt)!is,  rcliiiN^us  services,  railroads,  warehouses 
miles  long  for  the  sup}>lv  bases  all  had  to  be  provided. 
Drilling,  inirching  an  1  counter-marching  everywhere, 
**tramp,  trnr^nc  alonii;  the  laritl:  tramp,  tramp,  along  the 
sea."         An      n J^  pectacle    of    gun-carriages,    naval 

turrets,     tori    J    0  army    railway-carriages,    small 

liotchkiss  gun  or  o  l  cliant  ships,  seem^  to  be  going  on 
fore\  eio  aiul  in  the  tool-making  shops  the  output  has  risen 
from  fortv  four  thousand  to  three  million  a  year."  ^ 

1  .. !  i  ic  well  be  proud  of  her  part  in  this  con- 
flict. >  t^''!  could  be  done  to  prevent  war;  she 
entei  itain  her  word  of  honor,  and  once  in  she 
bent  ail  her  powers  to  the  task,  determined  to  win.  As 
t(  men.  iriiis  and  money,  Great  Britain  furnished  8,654,- 
467  nicfo  ner  a  fifth  of  the  mobilized  forces  of  the 
AUieJ  aki  Associated  Powers.  Of  these,  5,704,416  came 
frooi  fire  It  Britain  and  Ireland;  640,886  from  Canada; 
416. S09  iii  \  tralia;  220,099  from  New  Zealand; 
136.07  I  frcHii  o  Africa;  1,401,350  from  India  and 
134,837  froin  tiic  4  : ou  colonies.^  Their  casualties  all 
told — wouiule  i,  missing  and  killed — were  3,060,616. 
Some  850,000  were  killed.  The  British  furnished 
about  one-fiftli  of  tiie  money  expended.  Their  war  debt 
is  about  $35,000,000,000,  of  which  roughly  speaking  a 
fifth  was  loaned  to  the  Allies.  About  $750,000,000  was 
loaned  to  trie  Dominions.  As  to  the  fighting  the  British 
were  m  rfie  thick  of  it  from  start  to  finish  While  a  few 
costly  mistakes  were  made  at  the  first  and  defeats  were 
not  uncommon  in  the  earlier  engagements  none  the  less 
their  na\  al  and  military  record  on  the  whole  was  noble 
and  superb. 

Unaware  of  the  magnitude  of  the  enemy's  forces  and 
of  tlie  nipcantic  scale  on  which  warfare  was  to  be  con- 


England*s  Entrance  into  the  Great  War       247 

ducted  the  British  were  slow  in  making  adequate  prepara- 
tions. The  six  divisions  of  regulars,  60,000  sent  to 
Belgium,  were  not  equal  to  holding  back  the  horde  of 
German  soldiers  with  their  cavalry  and  armored  motor 
cars,  heavy  cannon  and  siege  guns  moving  on  with  the 
momentum  of  an  avalanche.  After  a  hot  contest  at 
M  ns  (August  23-24,  1914)  General  French  had  to 
Withdraw.  The  battle  and  the  six  days'  retreat  back  into 
France  cost  the  British  230  officers  and  13,413  men. 
Mismanagement  by  the  governmental  heads  in  London 
and  lack  of  men  and  equipment  caused  the  loss  of  Ant- 
werp to  the  Germans  and  explains  why  the  British  failed 
to  extend  their  battle  lines  northward  promptly.  The 
Germans  hurried  to  try  to  win  the  Channel  Ports,  Calais 
and  Dunkirk  and  thus  cut  off  England  from  the  most  di- 
rect communication  with  France.  The  bloody  battles  of 
Flanders  followed  (October  17-November  15)  and  the 
fearful  losses  at  Ypres  and  along  the  Yser.  The  com- 
bined forces  of  Belgians,  French  and  British  under  the 
command  of  General  Foch,  numbering  only  150,000— 
some  of  the  troops  raw  and  untried  with  inadequate 
equipment,  lacking  shells  and  heavy  artillery — success- 
fully withstood  the  repeated  attacks  of  half  a  million  thor- 
oughly trained  German  soldiers  provided  with  the  finest 
machine  guns  and  cannon.  On  the  coast  the  Belgians 
checked  the  enemy's  advance  by  cutting  the  dikes  of  the 
Yser  and  flooding  the  lowlands.  At  Ypres  the  British  had 
to  fight  against  terrible  odds  and  were  nearly  annihilated. 
The  German's  effort  cost  them  the  loss  of  150,000  men. 
The  Gallipoli  Campaign  was  most  disastrous.  Turkey 
having  taken  the  side  of  Germany  and  Austri  H  issia 
was  cut  off  from  getting  food  and  war  supplies  f i  ii  her 
western  Allies.     Could  the  Dardanelles  be  forced  and 


24-9 


Enqlan^s  Progress 


Constantinople  taken  l)v  tlie  Allies  it  would  end  the  Pan- 
Gerrnan  dream  o\  control  m  the  Balkans  and  Asia  M'--^^ 
In  I'^ebrua^'i.  !*^:  ^.  the  l''reiu,1i  and  British  warsh:^-)  iiiade 
attack,  lo>in^  iw-*-  ships  an.i  gaining  entrance  to  the 
straits       \i  nbardment  the  next  day  might  have 

succeed  e  Turks'  ammunition  was  about  out; 

but  those  attackinp:  were  unaware  of  the  fact:  and  since 
the  rarpid  cur  rent,  tloatoig  mines,  and  hidden  guns  of  the 
fortiric  iti oils  were  feared,  they  withdrew.  In  April  the 
liritish  sent  an  expedition  of  200,000  men,  mainly  Aus- 
traiian  and  Xe  \  Zealand  forces,  to  assist  in  the  attack. 
The  plan  v\  A  to  the  Germans  and  a  force  of  250,- 

under  German  officers  was  gath- 
invaders  were  landed  on  the  pen- 


000  we! 


;-a 


aru 


erec 


\  o : 


r  urieiKte 


insula  but  tie  ha!  val  wire  entanglements,  the  steep  rocky 
hills,  the  lack  ui  water,  the  scorching  July  heat  and  the 
resistance  *P  the  lurks,  along  with  the  submarine  at- 
tackN  no  fhi  supporting  gunboats  brought  the  heroic 
eliort  to  naught. 

hi  DeeinlHi  the  forces  were  withdrawn.  In  this  in- 
glorious campaign  the  toll  of  British  dead  was  26,000 
and  the  disabled  and  broken  in  health  numbered  89,000. 
Bulgaria  ju  Iged  from  the  outcome  that  it  was  to  her  in- 
terest 10  ton  with  the  Central  Powers.  The  fact  that 
two  German  cruisers  from  Messina  escaped  the  British 
patr  I  in  the  Mediterranean  and  got  through  the  Dar- 
danelles to  die  Black  Sea  at  the  opening  of  conflict  was 
of  big  e fleet  I  f  J  he  British  pursued  and  captured  them 
possiblv  I  uiivLj  u  uKi  have  been  kept  from  uniting  with 
(icrmiic  and  access  to  Russia  by  the  Western  Powers 
woiiki  ha\e  been  maintained. 

ill  No\  ember.  1914,  occurred  a  naval  disaster  at  Cor- 
onet ot!  the  coast  of  Chile.    Admiral  Craddock  with  four 


England s  Entrance  into  the  Great 


i 


249 


*/St. 


'•'■artvc. 


1  f 


armoured  vessels  of  inferior  t  a      ^        >  ! 

von  Spec's  squadron  of  five 

combat  Craddock,  1600  men     -^  iv 

But  on  December  6  following  the  1     d       a        t  .1. 

Admird     -oirdee    with    seven   p 

spatched  lu  engage  von  Spec.     He  iocind  tJie  squadron 

near  the  Falkland  Islands  and  in  a  running  battle  sent 

von  Spec  and  four  of  his  ships  to  the  bottom. 

To  British  arms  during  this  war  must  be  credited  not 
a  few  great  achievements.  The  holding  of  a  good  long 
section  of  that  three  hundred  mile  line  of  entrenchments 
extending  from  the  sea  to  Switzerland  year  in  and  year 
out;  the  noble  five  days'  struggle  in  the  Second  Battle 
of  Ypres  (April  22,  19 15)  when  the  Germans  in  their 
savage  thrust  to  take  Calais,  throwing  international  law 
to  the  winds  m  makmir  use  of  poison  gas  were  blocked 
by  the  unyielding  1  oiadians  though  losing  one  in  three 
of  their  men;  the  relief  of  Verdun  in  the  First  Battle  of 
the  Soirime  (Jidv  i-November  17,  1916)  where  the 
soil  was  mixed  with  the  blood  of  nearly  a  million  men 
killed  or  wounded;  and  where  the  forces  under  General 
Haig,  though  suffering  the  first  day  a 


I S  S     O  I 


i        \, 


f'l  0  <") 

steadily  fought  on  and  on  until  they  had  ousted  the  Ger- 
mans from  their  perfected  entrenchments  and  with  their 
armored  land  cruisers  the  **tanks"  put  the  enemy  on  the 
defensive  and  set  a  new  pace  in  the  strife,  especially  in 
dealing  with  trenches  and  barbed  wire  entanglements; 
the  bold  taking  of  Vimy  Ridge  (April  9,  19 17)  by  the 
Canadians  that  seaired  control  of  a  district  of  Northern 
France  rich  in  coal;  the  capture  of  50,000  prisoners  and 
immense  stores  of  munitions  in  several  attacks  along 
with  the  French  i  1  the  late  spring  of  1917  and  the  break- 
ing through  the  Hindenburg  line  at  one  place ;  the  valor 


^ 


X) 


En/rland's  Progress 


displayed  in  the  battle  of  Picardy  (March  2i~Apni  i) 
where  tiie  British  though  outnumbered  three  to  one  held 
hack  the  (icrrnan  hosts  until,  with  the  arrival  of  French 
troops,  tiic\'  rliwartcii  the  enemy  in  his  plans  to  capture 
AiTiirN  r  vi  h  highway  to  Paris  and  drive  a  wedge 
between  i  u  Brnish  and  French  armies;  the  barring  the 
wav  to  the  i  !i  inncl  i*orts  in  the  battle  fought  in  Flan- 
ders near  the  cities  of  Ypres  and  Arras  when  an  over- 
whelrnhig  force  moved  forward  April  9,  1918,  against  the 
Brtisli,  pressing  them  on  until  ihcy  had  to  fight  with  the 
desperation  of  an  animal  at  bay;  and  their  heavy  blows 
at  Montdidier  (August  8,  1918)  and  smashing  o^*  c 
Hindenbnrcr  line,  a  part  of  the  final  overwhelming  Allied 
offensive  launched  by  General  Foch  when  the  French  at- 
tacked at  Soissons  and  the  Americans  took  the  St.  Mihiel 
NaUcnt  and  cleared  the  Argonne  Forest;  the  retaking 
after  an  carher  defeat,  of  Kut-el-Amara,  the  capture  of 
the  (  itv  of  Bagdad  (March  11)  and  occupation  of  the 
Fuphritcs  valley  which  defeated  the  German  Berlin- 
Bagihid  riihv  IV  scheme;  the  taking  of  Jaffa,  the  seaport 
of  j      .^  ^  the  capture  of  the  Holy  City  (Decem- 

ber !  ;  AUenby  who  had  to  storm  the  Turk- 

ish positions  In  accounting  for  the  collapse  of  the  Ger- 
man definsc  t[u  stubborn,  valorous  Briton  must  be  re- 
inemberc  vl  ah)n^  with  the  masterful  strategist,  Foch,  the 
iresh  Airu  rican  armv  of  1,500,000,  and  the  spirited 
French, 

Na\;!!  battles  were  few.        •      \         t   24,   1914,  oc- 

a  part  of 
ressel; 


•  1 


,1 


currea  the   Rattle  of  Heligoland 

the  (dernian  licet  attacked  somr  r>nubii  |j,:"n'  vessels. 
I  nur  fast  battleships  rushed  to  the  aid  of  the  scout  ships 
and  succeeded  in  sinking  three  cruisers  and  two  destroyers 
of  the  enemvc    On  January  24,  191  r    '    ■     -d  fkatty  in 


England's  Entrance  into  the  Great  War       251 

the  Battle  of  Dogger  Bank  sank  tfie  Blucher  and  badly 
battered  two  other  German  cruisers  that  were  attempt- 
ing to  raid  the  English  coast.  On  May  31,  19 16,  in  the 
Battle  of  Jutland — the  one  great  sea-fight  of  the  war — 
the  German  fleet  handled  very  roughly  Admiral  Beatty^s 
squadron  of  light  armored  cruisers.  \.  ral  Beatty 
stuck  to  the  unequal  contest  until  the  British  Grand  Fleet 
under  Admiral  Jellicoe  arrived.  But  when  Admiral  Jei- 
licoe  approached  near  nightfall  the  German  ships  man- 
aged to  escape  in  the  darkness  and  mists  back  to  their 
mine-protected  bases.  The  British  lost  three  battle  cruis- 
ers and  fifteen  other  vessels.  The  Germans  proclaimed  it 
a  victory;  but  since  they  had  failed  in  their  purposes  lu 
break  through  the  blockade  and  to  destroy  Fndind's 
naval  superiority,  since  their  losses  were  fully  a  eat  as 
the  English  losses,  since  the  crews  of  the  German  ships 
lost  heart  for  such  war  and  since  the  next  day  the  British 
vessels  were  out  picking  up  survivors  and  courting  further 
fighting  while  the  German  fleet  never  dared  come  out 
of  their  havens  again,  the  British  were  actually  the  vic- 
tors. 

The  services  of  the  British  Navy  in  this  war  cannot 
be  overestimated.  It  kept  bottled  up  the  German  fleet; 
it  hunted  down  the  German  raiders  preying  on  commerce; 
it  laid  the  mine  fields  furnishing  coast  protection;  it  main- 
tained the  blockade  of  German  ports  cutting  off  food  sup- 
phes  and  needed  raw  materials;  it  prevented  the  home 
return  and  entrance  into  the  army  of  many     ■  ads 

of  German  subjects  abroad;  it  furnished  safe 
transports  laden  with  food,  fuel,  ammunition,  a 
plies  and  troops  along  the  sea  routes  from  F  . 
D      jiions  and  America  to  France;  it  kept 
busy  in  mine  sweeping;  it  overcame  in  time  the 


-I  i    If 


at:?r:a,]r- 


2S% 


England* s  Progress 


five  siibmarifies,  betnsf  able  -v^ith  depth  bombs  and  other 


'n\  f'fit.f  'n-N    ^ > 


IH'Jo 


cab:  .  \ 

t,  i  !  i   i, !  ■  >     •»  J ,.  t.  i    ; ;  V 

r- !  t »  ■■-      't  t  -  i'*  r  ,.  >       f  i-'i  ■ 

j  I  i ; '.       >\  V,  1  t,      i  J  i  \ 
t" !  n  ''•      \x  ■ '  I  ?*  t  •'!  ?*  f ' 


\\  a 


w  e  e  k  s 


pcriiii.' 


1   as  fast  as  they  were  built; 

veather  and  foul,  in  storm  or 

er's  heat,  incurring  dangers 

;C  but  seeinc:  to  it  that  the 
communication.  Ter- 
uii  the  unrestricted  subma- 
n  1  chruary,  19 17.  In  a  two 
were  sunk,  three-fourths  of 
which  wet  ships  of  over  1600  tons.  Over  7,500,000 
tons  or  merchant  shipping?  was  lost  by  England  during 
the  war;  but  the  greatest  j-o"^  nf  the  loss  was  covered  by 
builtJuig  new  sliips  and  captui    ..    memy  vessels. 

1  ht   (lenitr;     would  have  ^\ tii  the  war,  so  the  story 

not  blocked  their  progress  for 
I  rench  to  better  prepare  and 
defence;  or  if  the  French  had 
e  Mame;  or  li  the  clefenders 
I    \  erdun  had  yielded;  or  if 
1  lot  come  to  save  the  day;  but  whether 
hulls  or  not  one  thing  cannot  be  de- 
British  Navy  there  could  have  been  no 


goes,   ii    tie:    ii-\._    r.^. 
ten  (lavs  w:i;w,    ■ .'     . 
to  real 
lost  th 


;!  'Dili 


t fie   ^^  ^'^ ■'  ■"^' 


iSatrle  ni 

3   s 


\...  1 1 


■ !     I   n  I 


nr    Of 


the  yXoienej'' 


^     Witfuni 


I  I.  i  C  ■  i  J   » 


\a,ctorva 


(iieat  Britain  won  much  from  the  war.    Added  to  her 

Widespread    |)os sessions    were    Palestine,    Mesopotamia, 

the  i-'aei'u:  Isl  :  ■  :-   ^  a 

(hi  c  nil  any,  parts  of  K 
Atraea  and  German  ^-m 
enhanced.    G(  1  ;-aa  .  ■ 
h  raiite  could  w.  i    .  a.; 


>Ui:/    i  aaail   .-a. 
duinooi::-  o''-.  _ 


\S 


he  equator  formerly  held  by 
d  Togoland,  German  East 

iwest  Africa.    Her  prestiire  was 

than  Spain,  or  M  or 

Uy  her  co*  lari- 

4  e  to  Cairo  railwa) ,  ier 

'  ctorate  over  Persia  she  could 

litical  policy  over  the  better 


F     w    /'5  Entrance  into  the  Great  War       253 

part  of  Africa  and  rich  portions  of  Asia.  A  chief  arti- 
ficer of  the  Versailles  Treaty  and  of  the  League  of  Na- 
tions Covenant  and  the  foremost  member  of  the  League, 
tiie  nation  waxes  constantly  greater  in  influence  and 
power,  directing  Europe  in  the  ways  of  law,  justice  and 
peace. 


REFERENCES 


I. 

2. 


Mrs.  Humphrey  Ward :  England's  Effort,  p.  14. 
Cross:  A  Shorter  History  of  England  and  Great  Britain,  p. 
832. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


I  s 


\     I      i      ^      i 


iri-.PKUDUCTS  OF  TTTF  W\R 
AM)  RECENT  TENDENCIES 

The  Franchise  Act  of  191 8  added  8,000,000  voters  to 

the  elector  I  te,  including  6,000,000  women.  Whereas  in 
1832  only  I  in  24  of  the  population  could  vote,  and  in 
1884  I  in  7,  now  the  ratio  is  i  in  3.  The  franchise  was 
eiven  tu  all  men  over  twenty-one  with  fixed  residence  or 
pi  ic  o(  business  for  six  months  and  to  all  women  over 
tfi  ity  wilt)  liad  already  the  right  to  vote  in  local  elections 
by  reason  oi  a  six  months  ownership  or  tenancy  of  prop- 
erty or  who  were  the  wives  of  men  so  qualified.  It  did 
away  with  plural  voting  practically.  The  law  enlarged 
the  House  oi  L  jinmons  from  670  to  707.  England  was 
niven  492  members,  Wales  36,  Scotland  74,  and  Ireland 
105. 

The  Act  for  disestabhshing  and  disendowing  the 
I  hurch  in  Wales,  passed  in  19 14,  went  into  effect  on 
March  31.  1920.  Wales  was  made  a  separate  Arch- 
bishopric. 

The  Education  ^\ct  of  191 8  compelled  regular  full- 
time  attendance  at  school  of  all  children  between  the 
ages  of  five  and  fourteen.  Between  the  ages  of  fourteen 
and  eighteen  part  time  attendance  is  required  at  properly 
organized  continuation  schools.  Employers  who  engage 
pupils  attending  continuation  schools  must  release  them 
in  time  to  allow  for  cleaning  up,  making  themselves  tidy 
and  getting  meals.     Children  under  twelve  cannot  be  law- 

254 


Le^slaiive  By-Products  of  the  War 


2SS 


'•I 


11,  nor  may  children  be- 
K    employed 


:  1  i'  c 


fully  employed  in 

tween   twelve   an 

after  school  hours.     *'They  i;  work  before  six 

o'clock  in  the  morning  or  :i(u:  ■   ,    •  k  at  niirhr,  or 

for  more  thri"  ^  .vo  hour-     -  '-M--:a;.  /  ^      1  he  expense  of 

the   educational    svstem    v  ;is   divided   about  equally  be- 


tween the  centr 


ai   ari' 


governriii 


b. 


Tn  19 1 5  1  Liquor  Control  Board  was  set  up  which 
limited  the  sale  of  drink  to  a  few  specified  hours  each 
day,  and  which  greatly  reduced  the  alcoholic  strength 
of  beer  anii  other  spirituous  liquors. 

The  voluntary  Joint  Standing  Industrial  Councils  set 
up  in  19 17  are  not  unlike  the  Trade  Boards.  They  are 
not  governinentai  bodies  nor  arc  their  decisions  enforce- 
able at  law.  They  are  permanent  bodies  of  representa- 
tives of  both  capital  and  labor  within  an  industry  They 
are  composed  o!  representatives  of  both  Employers  As- 
sociations and  Trades  Unions  who  meet  regularly  to  dis- 
cuss their  differences,  remove  grievances,  beget  ameliora- 
tion, arrive  at  better  mutual  understanding  and  forestall 
quarrels  and  strikes.  The  Corn  Production  Act  (19 17) 
dealt  with  farmers'  profits  and  farm  laborers'  wages.  It 
guaranteed  a  minimum  price  per  quarter  for  wheat  and 
for  oats  payable  by  the  state  up  until  1922  and  it  set  up 
an  Agricultural  Wages  Board  for  fixing  remuneration 
for  farm  labor.  ixed  **the  minimum  hours  of  work 

at  fiftv-four  per  week  in  the  summer  and  forty-eight  in 
winter,  and  provided  for  a  Saturday  half-holiday,  and  for 
overtime  rates  of  pay  increased  by  25  per  cent  on  the 
legal  rate  for  week  days  and  by  50  per  cent  for  Sun- 
day work."  ^ 

The  war  struggle  modified  radically  public  sentiment 
and  policy  as  regards  the  tariff.     In  19 17  a  government 


2  k6 


En^lan^s  Proqr 


ess 


committee  on  commercial  and  iruJusrn.il  policv,  fiendedby 


a   former  tree  trade  re  re 
cia!  steps  to  stifriiilate    . 
and   raw   materials    arhj 


immended  "(i)  taking  of  spe- 
thc  production  of  food  stuffs 


les;  (2)  the 
the  establish- 
^     Protection 

^  ns  a  politi- 
t  chiefly 


lanuf  a,etureti 
adopticjn  of  Coloiiial   I'''" 
merit  of  a  wider  range  i  ■      . ^'^  ■'■,-. 
in  Irngland  fndav  is  iitst  '•    ■  —  *•    - 
ca!  question.     Its  purpose  is  not  . 
hut  natfofial  ^elf-sufficiencv  and  ir 

experiences  loua*  [uit  an  end  |,)nssdil\-  for  pocK.!  imd  aU  to 
I'ngland's  free  trade  pnM,;\,  In  the  present  era  of  ire 
creasing  internet nr-.j  ■■  orotective  duties  are 

ronsitiereii  not  >c)  muel-  v.'-''^  ,   to  their  effects  on 

labor  and  industry  as  on  State  anci  1  oi|dre. 

A  new  settlement  has  been  attenir^O'd  ;  :  hvCi^d  Dur- 
ing the  war  (.\priK  U)l6)  Sir  i\n^'x;r  (dasenicii;  .i.-''^-.^  In^ii 
radicals  supported  by  Germans  red  r:„\.'dd''ea  ''^rv::-iciai 
asil  frfmi  Insli  Americans  rose  in  I'v.^:;^  unoos'icd  their 
fiacr  aoer  the  Dublin  Post  Office,  a;u:  pioclaimed  Patrick 
IVarse  'CPrn\asit)nal  President  of 
Io')r  se\aaod  da\^K  Uu-^-^-  was  fic''^ '  'e 
killeci  and  \\"oundt;d  in  Dublin.      \'r 


Of  !  C),OOC),a)(')o  piUin^K  wai 
mans  ianeii  to  sa^id  -  -.  r-  * 
make  the  aioa^rk  t.'^i  iki;  f 
pfctetk    the    liruisfi    pnurr 


lie   Irish   Republic.'* 
a  and  many  were 

p.  ru  to  the  aiiiouiit 
ieHtro\'ed.  But  as  the  Cer- 
A  munitions  and  to 
.-.-,  of  England,  as  ex- 
40,000  troops  into  Ireland 
bellion.  Casement  was  ex- 
o  1  six  of  the  leaders  were 
shot,  and  fifty  or  rricu'e  imprisoruoJ,  for  life.  But  the  strug- 
gle for  independence  livcti  on  none  the  less.  Eamon 
de  \dilera  was  later  ekaacrl  by  the  Sinn  Feiners  (We 
()urse!\a:'s }  President  of  tin:  Irish  Repiddic,  In  the  gen- 
eral parliamentary  election  held  in  December,  1918,  the 


and  quickH 


ceo  ted 


s    a 


.]  '  on 


ac7?.0<7frta^ 


By-Products  of  the 


Sinn  Felnrr.  cap        I    3  of  the  constituencies  while  the 

^■^  'icHUstH  ^(a  ;: :  „Ks^i  tiit  Xarujiiallsts  only  7.  None  of 
^^'^  '''^"■"  I  tanc!-s  look  their  seats  at  Westminster  but 
assembled  in   1)  f  xh,  frisli  Republican  Parliament 

which  the  majority  <  n  people  of  Southern  Ireland  re- 
garded  as  idieo  biiviui  government,  Jingiand's  orders  to 
the  contrary  notwithstanding.  Supporting  the  republi- 
cans were  labor  groups  of  syndicalistic  and  socialistic 
thouj?ht  and  members  of  the  Gaelic  Learrue  who  were 
P^^^^' \  '  •  Pec  is  ncient  literature  and  long-lived  na- 
tionalistic spirit.  I  or  a  year  and  more  intermittent  guer- 
illa warfare  went  on  between  the  British  and  Sinn  Fein 
forces  with  much  destruction  of  life  and  property  and 
with  cruel  reprisals. 

To  bring  peace  Lloyd  George  first  tried  to  get  a  basis 
of  settlement  through  a  convention  held  in  1917  to  which 
representatives  from  all  the  various  Irish  parties  were 
invited.    Sir    Horace    Plunkett,    a    man    thoroughly    ac- 
quainted uidi  Irish  affairs  and  devoted  to  Ireland's  in- 
terest, presided  over  the  Convention,  the  busy  sessions  of 
which  continued  for  nine  long  months  (July,  1917-April, 
191 8).     But  as  the  Sinn  Feiners  would  not  attend  at  all 
since  the  question  of  independence  was  forbidden  to  be 
discussed ;  and  the  Protestant  Ulsterites,  who  sent  dele- 
gates, refused  to  join  in  any  sort  of  an  all-Ireland  Parlia- 
ment little   headway  was   made.     The   Prime    Minister 
then  (December,  1920)  presented  a  new  Government  of 
Ireland  Act.     Its  novel  feature  was  the  establishment  of 
two  bi-cameral  parliaments — one  in  Belfast  for  the  six 
northern  counties,  and  one  in  Dublin  for  the  rest  of  Ire- 
land— and  of  a  Council  of  Ireland  composed  of  a  Presi- 
dent,  an  appointee  of  the  King,  and  t  v     delegations  num- 
bering twenty  each  from  the  two  Parliaments.     Power 


258 


EnifUn^f  Pr 


Oijress 


was  given  the  tw(}  Parliaments  ro  substitute,  if  they  should 
later  desire  sr.  -  ^    "  .    »..-  -h,-  ij-.i^o]  ".''  Ireland  a  Parlia- 

ncnt  fcir  the  i^ :  .  ■•      -       .  ,  •  :,.         -    .,^  ,.nr  m;-  :uu 


ric 


.  I 


;e 


i    I. 


houses.  Ivxecutivr  p,.v.-(  r  in  ca.  !>  area  ren 
Ivini^  who  might  rxcrrisc  if  thirMi^ii  rri 
I.ieiiteruint.,  IrchiiK?  was  Ntil!  to  ha\a-  =  :'^  v.-.  rcfirc- 
sentatives  in  rfic  I  nglisfi  Parliainefua  As  tr)  the  judici- 
ary, there  was  t-  ?^-  .-  Mparaita  s\-.t-';:  -f  courts  for  each 
area  with  (»nc  Supas^'iar.  Ctjais;^  ='d"  Appea''.  ^'.a-  all  Ireland. 
^'^■'vvard  Imperial  rApenJuaasa;  Xorthern  irwatui  vans  to 
eontribute  44  per  cetu,  ^  ■    ■''         '  '  •  Re- 

served  pnu  rrs    M  vvr    a  '       -        ■  ■■..=  «    in 

tile  Act  of    1  f)  I  4. 

Neith,er  Xorthern  nor  Southern  Ireland  was  pleased 
with  the  pror ma  n  !  o  awhile  held  aloof.  But  event- 
ually lojstcr  wi!h  par:-::-  =  ^a.  iuyalty  accepted  the  plan  and 
^^f't   u|)  her  goixoTinuoK   with  Sir  James   T'    '  ihame 

Minister.      On  June    22.    i^ar,  tlie  King  -    '  h)r- 

inallv  opened   Vn:    I  ']s{,  r    -  ,  .writ.      "1      .  ,aki 

King  (leorge,  "  t-^  a!;  InsUinvn  to  stretch  m.,  -land  of 

hation,  to  forgive  and  to  forget." 
Ireland  Lloyd  George  labored 
and  persistence,  holding  parleys 
h  f  representatives  and  negotiat- 
james  Craig  in  an  effort  to  ac- 
ences.  For  months  no  progress  seenie  1 
making  bur  fmal'v  if  was  announced  a: 
ceniher  t>  that  an  agreement  by  trtoi'-; 
to  declare  Ireland  a  Free  State  witiori 
pire,  like  the  D^vrmnion  of  Canada,.  1,  ■ 
the  option  to  join  in  o-/  i-,:\s  ^'  :U:  ■■  '  ;•  :-; 
Status.      Mici  ud    Collins  a     i 


forbearance   anO   ,  ^  r- 
Witli    ."fO-  !■  ,     N 
with     irOifiif.      i'j:'-: 
with   lie   '\diho-ei   a^-a! 


!      .* 


{    ' 


10  A.M.  De- 
een  reached 

r  being  given 
separate 

^>  iiiuliai     i4Wi>i- 


dent  of  th,e  hb-ee  State,  th         ,  he  did  not  have  the  sup- 


Legislative  By-Products   of  the  War 


«59 


r,iat 


i'CtUy      O 


'p  \'-p-'^  ■•ii'i^.i  o;:-^  niaaav  disciples  who  stdl  seemed 
-gbt  ft;r  an  independent  republic.  Should  ci\al 
war  occur  between  the  Free  m  and  the  Republicans  of 
Southern  Ireland  it  will  f    :    ut   1  and  bloody. 

The  Government    4    Ida   Act  oi  1918  is  liberal  in 
tendency.     The  declared  p  I      P  iment  is  to  pro- 

vide    "the    increasing    a  i  i     _:n.     n    cw  m- 

branch  ui   the  administration,  and  the  gradual  :U:m     ,- 
miH    of  self-governing  institutions  with  a  \ 
gressive  realization  of  responsible  g  ,  -     :         It 

as  an  integral  part  of  the  British  Fmu  re.*  in  March, 
^^^^'  ^-^'''[  hrrvptinm  Government  was  invited  tw  discuss 
with  the  Br  >h  Government  the  pus  bia  subst  u  p  1  yf 
the  present  1  gish  protectorate  by  a  new  pobtical  rela- 
tionship u  ai  while  securing  Great  Britain's  interests 
would  better  satisfy  Egypt's  desire  for  a  greater  auton- 
omy. It  may  result  that  Egypt's  relation  to  England 
will  be  like  that  of  Cuba  to  the  United  States. 

Constructive  imperialism  has  been  strengthened  by  the 

war.     iPrevious  to  1914  this  subject  was  quite  prominent 

in  political  writinqfs  and  dis      sions.    The  increasing  cost 

of  defending  the  widely  sc      r    d  dominions  and  depcn™ 

dencies  of  the  vast  F    pire  led  some  to  the  belief  that 

the  component  parts  of  the  Empire  should  be  represented 

in    HI   Imperial  Council  of  ^o    a,   and  that  these  parts 

oca  voice  in  laying  taxes  for  imperial  purposes 

support  the  Imperial  Exchequer.      I  he  Colo- 

a  nrally  a\  crsc  to  paying  into  the  f;  V 

'   -ge  contributions  for  Liroe.    . 

■    ^    rf  which  they  had  nu  uuntruP     No 

erini  government  could  he  set  up  unless  both 

Great  Bniain   and  the   Colonies  si        '   place  imperial 

above  local  interests.    An  ^Imperial  gwo  c  based  upon 


iSo 


England^s  Progress 


Imperial  means  could  be  organized  only  if  the  nucleus  of 

a n  I  111 p) e r !  a  1  Cabinet,  \x\x h  a  n    i :  n |  *  v . :  a  1   .\  a  \  \    B o a r d ,  n  r i 

Imperial   f^xchcjui':-.   aiui   an,    ir^;:  :•'  .:!    >cndii:-    rc|xreseiir- 
ing  the  u-;u\l:  fjr:     •,     ;       .  ::i  '  '    *     L' p  to   iQi;  onK- 
Irnperiai  I  t.nf'cri::.^ .  ■.  :.....  .  ■  .     %.  J.  1h.;  in,  ,Mari,ii  >H  that 

year  unde:'  prcs^uri'  n'  w  :•   \\.i->  *  jrrneti  tiic  Inipenal  W^'ar 
Cabinet,   lonipos:':   -     t'u     1'    •  .r   ^,ll^l!stl'^s   ol    Canada, 
Suuth   Aj:  .  ;.   \i\     /i\w':       .      '   \  i;\\  i  oufuiiu, !;;.,:.  and  ttic 
Secrctar\'  ••■   ^t,t:.    '■>!    is.'        -^      Bntish  IWivn:  M, in i ^t, fi- 
ll nd  rneinbc'>    ^t'  L  -  \\  ,      .  .  ••.      n     The  Prni'.    M-    .'*.--. 
met  as  rij'.i.t  -     n-  '      .        •  n         thus  had  it  -   -        -    -      i- 

rccting  guvtrnnnin:,'  .»<.  .  in  «  ,  ^  ."  h,;^  a.  '.a.  a  Ntv- 
onii  sessiC'ii  nt  ds  d  ..  •  i  t!  \^  '.  .  '  ,.  '  .na:  i^  .'  -  ■  *> 
cided  that  iuv  v  t  -  ^  'idh;  \'  "  ^i  ..  a.  -^  .  ■  ^  •  •  > 
of  this  LabjiK'f  >a  ..'d  inuc  t'n  .nght  or  a.iCvi  ..^^a^aauoi- 
taitiuii  uat?i  :h'  i*'a  •  •  \1  i,o  -  mI  oic  LJnIted  knigalnnn 
and  aaa*'  vl'niauiiun   Prime  M      ^  -    ,jven  the  ngiit 

to  n  *  ,,  .,:ta  a  C,  aaa'ict  Mini^tioa  ^au  'c-  .  ■  .  *n  or  visit- 
ing ia)nduii,  ti)  represent  '  o  *^  rncetnigs  co  tne  Cabinet 
heiii  between  tfia  planar^  h-ss^.  .r:,:-^.  In  1921  was  assem- 
bled in  London  ati  ia!i|--vn;t,ant  conference  between  the 
.P,r,i,nie  Mmisters  of  uir  I  mrcd  knigdiairi,  Si,H.itai  Aiiacan 
Ldn-an  Austrahan  *  "  ■    •     d'  .    i  .;n..  :  .  ,  ■■  '  '^'^    .-    'd    - 

lain:    .ii'  ni^    w'lth    o.  •    ,   o  -.  ••       i  .  a  *    '       '       ■       ilea 

co:njpn)n  'tn'oiga^  n  •  ..  .  It  .«.  rs  r -.a  n.oA,  ).n  .-a  ■,  -n  ^'^-e 
non-rcncwal  00  C-  '\  .d  1  .  ■-  ''dan^^r,  "^s^ac  d'V 
I'.ngiand  nLa\    \'.'^  •     ,  ■  .fnin.sa'^ 

Wh(;  aan  say  tboit  on*  i  -a.  an.,  v  ;.'i..!U'..5  n;  im  !  a...  e 
wdl  not  be  iri\-ested  wath  executi\'e  lu!K:ta,His,  and  that  at 
some  da\-  there  riiav  not  be  abseiidd,ed  ni  Io,,)ndon  a  true 
.Imperial  idirhanuno  In  windi  rcprcseiitati\'eb  t, roni  the 
home  bind  and  aLaonics  shall  legislate  on  equal  footuig 
side  by  side  r 


Legislative  ByJ/roducts  of  the  War  261 

\S  ith  the  coinnig  nf  peaee,  tlu:  organizariijn  of  govcr,n- 
ment  havl  ol    vourse  ti,>  i)e  |„)ut  !)aek  again  on  its  pre-war 
basis.      1  ha  (  a,!vnct  ,f]a^  t'H;inj  rei.JUvi;d  to  iwcnu-  oieiiibers. 
^'''''   -•''  •*  h:i\i:   'aa,^^'>   wo/;oa.:vn    rd;,.-    \inn,^tryof 

^^'■♦'  ''  •■  '  "'  AiOiibir)  ui  ifaiibpura,.  ^oiiie  needed 
s^  ^  -'^  n.^.->..n..-'n  surh  as  the  Housing  iidd  iiab  been  lai- 
^'  '         '^•^^-  ^^i^'       ^    ^'o:-..:-.  -a    i\\v  ;-ailwa\'   nua,o,  IlOinoO.  ana, 

'^  '    '■     '  ■   ■  ^'The  Triple  Adian*.L^''--' iiu^a    ULwn 

St  . .  ^-    ....    a.  ....  .  d 

i  ariiy  as  results  of  the  Great  War  and  partly  as  re- 
sults   nf  forces  active   for   some  decades  past,   several 

new  t  .tiuiis  and  tendencies  are  iuuwd  m  tfie  btc  of 
Lirt  a  b  tain  today.  Democracy  has  come  to  full  expres- 
sn an  uffrage  including  women  being  had.    Socially 

the  clasM  ^  ive  been  led  to  understand  and  appreciate 
better  one  another.  Thev  have  been  forced  to  get  to- 
gether and  do  a  common  task,  to  fight  a  foe  threatening 
their  very  life.  The  rich  and  well-placed  are  more  ready 
than  former  b.  to  consider  the  problems  and  demands  ot 
the  less  fortunate.  Capital  and  labor  are  recognizing 
the  sanity  and  necessity  of  substituting  frank  counsel  and 
loyal  cooperation  for  suspicion  and  conflicr.  ALon 
en  ployers  have  come  to  know  that  in  some  form  or  other 
i  must  be  made  a  partner,  not  a  nominal  partner 

m  the  patronizing-  way  wdiieh  means  five  (nr  ten  pounds 
at  Chribtrna^  ^houbl  tiie  proprietor  have  made  a  miUion 
during  the  year,  but  a  real  partnership  on  which  above 
a  certain  minimum  a  man's  earnings  expand  witli  the  pros- 
perity ot  tlie  business.  Busy  minds  are  w  rkmg  uri 
schemes  ad  some  of  them  d"  le  to  fruition  before 
long.'' » 

Political   parties  are   experiencing  change.      1  he   old 
Conservatives  are  becoming  more  liberal,  and  the  old  Lib- 


262 


England^s  Progress 


crals  more  radical  and  socialistic.      I  ibur   Ins  placed 
its  representath  I'K   ^n    rhc   Cabinet   and   elcctcii   a    third 


(jf  the  nicrnbers  cm'  i-^  |  louse  of  i„'i)iiiiiiuiii>.  This  au^rs 
constitiiti  I!  tl  change.  J  lu  I  louse  of  Commons  may  ac- 
quire still  greater  weight  in  England's  system  of  govern- 
ment tfiaii  it  lias  today.     Democracy  may  some  day  make 

thi:  Huusi-  oi  Lords  an  elective  body.  1  r^c  -xtension  of 
the  fraiuiiisi  lias  lieen  accompanied  by  a  sv-rcai  of  uni- 
versal conipulsorv   education.     Though  lai    ^'^^aaa^^  men 

are  ^imnin^  liifluenec  in  politics  and  go\aa:n;::i -:'  ^  ng- 
land  will  hace  n  t  soviet  system  of  rule,  no  dictatorship 

of  the  proletariat.     National  welfare,  nut  }  aapLring  la- 

bur.   Will   !h'  the  eruJ   \n  legislation.      F '  '^    Hefore  tlie 

law.   rii.a   piaj!  eiaMitial    treatnn  =a'    ^  a"  '^'  '' '      , 

lahi,aa'!-':,  u.  nciaa,       Trade  uia.  .'  =  :  v-  -^  .     ■_      e  aaaJ.- 

lr'bit  r'l  r\-    hiws    iriM    ha\- 


fications. 


lessened 


national 


proiiueliun.  such  as  exeiu^:*ai  of  waliiiig  aoil  capable 
workmen,  limiting  the  numlier  of  apprentes,  pr  dubitiiig 
wajinen  in  reiiaui  occupations,  unreabonahle  limitation  of 
hours  and  output  will  eventually  be  -et  aside  I  he  desire 
and  purpose  to  aid  by  law  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to  do  so 
in  gnaaig  to  eici)  one  wfio  will  work  a  decent  living,  iav 
eluding  a  little  leisure  for  seir-cuiture,  carries  with  it  the 

iernan  1  ihat  the  greatest  possible  production  must  be 
lia  1  n  e  r\  line.  All  must  do  their  best  in  the  interest 
ot  national  welfare  in  peace  times  as  ail  did  their  best 
HI  irtier  to  \\ in  the  war.  i  lie  whole  community  suffers 
as  dues  individual  character  when  men  trifle  at  their 
tasks.  While  lais'^ez  faire  lias  been  giving  way  to  col- 
lectivism ami  '"erence  in  some  fields,  the  system 
of  Governni  i  industry  has  not  been  espe- 
cially strlal^1l!cn-.  a  '  .  u  :ir  experiences.,  i  he  people  have 
beeoiiie    :  red   «?!    '     ■       ■      v.i. 


M 


r 


the  I., 
ence  with 

has  !:rr   i 

is  >\ii]\\l\^.: 
of  I'orn-; 
La,  ^=  '  -• 
of  \  n*p'ni 


Legislative  By^ProJucts  of  the  War  263 

influence  in  politics  will  probably  btrcngthcn 

cau^;    tluough  more  restrictive  interfer- 

intoxicants.    The  fact  that  the  war 

ith  a  million  more  women  than  men 

n:       Fhe  first  woman  to  win  a  seat  in  the  House 

ua>   I  ady  Astor,  formerly  Miss  Nannie 

,  an  American  girl  bom  and  reared  in  th 


1  L    «... .'  1  A  k  K, 


I  a^  Old  is  full  of  vision  to  make  this  world  a  better 


work. 


} 


cor    •  .     .v( 

she   ih:^\vv^, 

tectorates. 
she  would 


1  1 


stands  at  the  head  of  a  group  of  free 
Justice,  peace  and  economic  prosperity 

ibors  for  in  her  depeniitaieies  and  pri )-^ 

aal  animosities   and   racial  jealousies 

HL  L     Law,  self-government,  toleration  be^ 

genius.     She  is  not  afraid  of  responsib  It  c:. 


j.\  J  j 


lung  to  he 

and  dares  to  assume  mandates.  She  has  entered  the 
League  of  Nations  with  high  resolve  and  having  put  her 
hand  to  the  plough  she  does  not  look  hnrkward  as  she 
leads  onward  to  a  better  intemation: 


I. 
2. 

3. 
4. 

5. 


REFERENCES 

Turbevillc  &  Howe:  Great  Britain  in  the  Latest  Age,  p.  284. 
Turbeville  &  Howt  :  Great  Britain  in  the  Latest  Age,  p.  128. 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica:  Vol.  30,  p.  1016. 
J.  E.  Barker ;  Great  and  Greater  Britain,  p.  39. 
Dilnot:  England  after  the  War,  p.  321. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Alden:  Democratic   England. 
Barker:  Great  and  Greater  Britain. 
Bassett:  History  of  United  States. 
Bright:  Constitutional  Monarchy  1 689-1 837. 

Growth  of  Democracy  1837-1880. 
Burrows:  History  of  Foreign  Policy  of  Great  Britain. 
Cheney:  Social  and  Industrial  History  of  England. 
Corbett:  Naval  Operations. 
Cramb:  England  and  Germany. 
Cross:  England  ana  G.c^i  Britain. 
Dicey:  Law  and  Public  Opinion  in  England. 
Dilnot:  England  After  the  War. 

Lloyd  George. 
Dixon :  The  British  Navy  at  War. 
Encyclopgpdia  Brittanica,  Vols.  16,  22,  and  30. 
Edwards:  .\utts  on  British  History,  Part  IV. 
Fitchett:  Wesley  and  his  Century. 
Gooch :  History  of  Our  Own  Times. 
Harrison :  International  Policy. 
Hayes:  British  Social  Politics. 

A  Short  History  of  the  Great  War. 
Hazen:  Europe  Since  181 5. 
Holt  &  Chilton:  European  History  1862-1914. 
Hnnf  k  Pool:  Political  History  of  England,  Vols.  10,  11. 
II:         Britain  and  Great  Britain  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
^  :  -V  Gleason:  British  Labour  and  t'  ^  ^V  r. 

I         .  5tury  of  General  Gordon. 
Ltuiwy:  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  7  vols. 
Ixiir  and  Sanders:  Political  History  of  England,  edited  by  Hunt 

&  Pool,  Vol.  12,  1 837-1901. 
Al  r    'pcnr-  England  in  Transition  1789-1832. 
M  bpoch  of  Reform. 

Aiudtrn  England  before  the  Reform  Bill. 
Montagm^^    Elements  of  English  Constitution. 
Mc' '  -V    ta:  History  of  England,  Vols,  i  and 
M  I  he  English  Government. 

265 


2. 


.!^      \J      \,«f' 


England's  Progress 


^Jorley:  f.iff  of  Gladstone,  Xok.  i  and  2* 
(..)rnafi:  England  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
PmuI:  History  of  ^lodern  England,  5  vols. 

History  of  Reform. 

h'ne^  of  (.iladstooe, 
Ver\  .  11, r   F.it'iif  oi    F.nglan.f. 
Pollard  .  Pirit;>h  Fii!}!.'.-. 
Rees:  C'u!  :v\\\    Pim't,  v.    *''-.•;'!■■     ^ 

.\  .Ntii  iji   and   Intlu-tr!.:'    !:'••'  •    '    .. 

P«n!U;M;ji  X    HeaKl  .  C)uthrif-.     !    :  ^r    .»',  j     ' 
Ri.iinAell     I  an  i>t   '>:<■'■''".*.'[."     ,\    iv--....        . 

Seignoboe:  P'.iit..  ji  il    ->    ,     . 
Slater :  T^.r  ^p-tk  nc 

1   !   i  t     ; 


8I5-I9I8. 


.   *       If      J'« 


\P.   !. 


1  the  Eighteenth  Century,  2 


1'0p5. 

Terrv:  PiiNtorv  of  England. 

Turbe\ille  &  Howe:  Great  Britain  in  the  Latest  Age. 

Turner:  Europe  1  789-1920. 

Walford:  Life  and  Political  Career  of  Earl  of  Beaconsfield. 

Walpole :  History  of  England  Since  181 5,  6  vols. 

Ward:  England's  Effort. 

Wheatlcy:  Hogarth  *s  London. 


INDEX 


Aberdeen,  Lord,  90 

Afghanistan,  168,  190 

Agricultural    Rating    Act    (1806) 
183 

Agricuitural  W  ag^s  Board  (1917), 

255 
Alabama  affair,  95 
Alaska       Boundary      Controrertv 

(1867),  188 
Albert,  King  of  Belgium,  238 
Amiens,  battle  of,  250 
Anti-Corn  Law  League    ^9 
Arabi  Pasha,  150 
Argonne  Forest,  battle  of,  250 
Armenian  massacres   (1896),  185 
Army  reorganization    (1871),  128 
Arras,  battle  of,  250 
Asquith,  200,  242 
Astor,  Lady,  263 

Australian      Commonwealth     Act 

(1900),  185 
Austro-Prussian  War   (1866),   no 

Balfour,  195 

Belgium:  separation  from  Holland, 

86;  neutrality,  238;  war,  238 
Bentham,  Jeremy,  55,  66 
Boers,  146 
Boxers   (1900),  190 
Bright,  John,  70 

Budget,  Lloyd  George's  (1909),  208 
Bulgaria,  239 

B^:-r>.,.     I'hunKI.    F.,    66 

Cambridge     Univeriity:     religious 
tests  removed,  127 

Campbell-Bannerman,    Sir    Henry, 
200^  202 

Canadian  Confederation,  112 
Canadian  Fishery  Rights,  188 
Candia,   186 

Canning.   50.    51 


267 


Cardwell:  array  reform,  laf,  ito 

Camarron,  Lord,  161,  162 

Carson,  Sir  Edward,  216 

Casement,  Sir  Roger,  256 

Castlereagh,  35,  49,  5, 

"Cat  and  Mouse"  Act,  221 

Catholic  Association,  52 

Catholic  Emancipation,   5a 

Cato  Street  affair,  46 

Cavendish,  Lord  Frederick,  159 
Cawdor  Memorandum  (1905),  196 
Chamberlain,    Colonial    Secretary. 
184,  196  "^ 

Chartism,  8a 
Christina,  Regent,  87 
Clarkson,  Thomas,  66 
Cobbett,  William,  43 
Cobden,  70,  79 
Collins,  Michael,  258 
Combination  Acts   (1800),  36 
Cormr   n      [v      Amendment    Act 

(1893),  307 
Commutation  of  tithes   (1836),  8t 
Congress  of  Berlin  (1878),  142 
Congress  of  Vienna,  32,  33 
Corn  Production  Act  (1917),  255 
Coronel  disaster,  248 
County  and  District  Councils  Act 

(1888),  171 
Craig,  Sir  James,  258 
Crimean  War  (1855),  89-9^ 
Crimes  Act  (1887),  172 

Derby  insurrection,  46 
Derby,   Lord,   104 
Development  Act   (1909^    20  z 
"Dick  Pigott,'    ,75 
Disraeli,    Benjamin, 

ii3f  "4,   132,  134 

.H3i  150 
Disraeli's     Franchise      R?. 

(1867),  107 
Dogger  Bank,  battle  of,  zki 
Don  Carlos,  $7 


J  odr't  07,     til, 

i  36-139,     141. 


I  fifing 


268 


l)nu    Miguel,   87 

1    )  !  ;•  I  ■*»..■  i  r  •  !  H   ■■•■ 

1  ^o 


Index 


*  -,r-  1 '      A  r*"     ''  T  ^  -  - 


aled, 

1265 


,.    '*  ,    >»  it  H      !!ttr: 'fCU-aK    9;    mili- 


•"•'(Ci-'i  i     M  ;    moral 


.'     .    i  !.  i     •^-    in   Eighteenth 

(."entiiry.   20,   zi 
Vi\  re,    <  jcn-eriior,    9**^ 

Factr.rv  and  W'jrkshop  Bill  (1891), 


"  I 


t  1  <* 


V9 


^sassi- 


i  ' 


is  ; 


W 


\    . 


I'.ai,     J 


r 

in  Eng- 
.    25; 


war,  40-42 


Gsllipoli,  euDpaign  of,  347 

George  IV,  34 
George  V,  z  1 1 
Gilbert  Act  (1782),  73 
Gladstone,  William  Ewart,  70,  101- 
103,   114,   115,   117.   120-122,   127, 

128,  131-1341  44  45  h8,  149. 
151,  152,  156-160,  162-164,  178, 
182,   186 

Gordon,  General   Charles,  152-155, 

192 
Goschen,    lyo.    iSt 
Govemmcni      f   hulia  Act   (1918), 

259 


Government  of  Ireland  Act  (1920), 

257 
Government  of  London  Act  (1899), 

183 
Grey,  Charles  Earl,  54,   59,  62,  85 
Grey,  Sir  Edward,  237 

Htrtington,  Lord,  167,  18) 
Hay-Pauncefote     Treaty      (1901), 

188 
Heligoland  Bight,  battle  of,  250 
Herat,  evacuation  of,  90 
Hicks,  General,  153 
Holy  Alliance,  50 
Holy  City,  capture  of,  250 
Home  Rule  Bills:  (1886),  164,  165; 

(1893),    178;    Asquith's     (1912), 

214 
Housing  Act  (1909),  205 
Huskisson,   50 

Illiteracy  (1869),  124,  126 

Imperial  War  Cabinet  (1917),  260 

Ireland,  Free  State,  258 

Irish   Church,    disestablished,    115 

Irish  Land  Billi,  Gladstone'! 
(1875),  120,  121;  (1881)  and 
(1886),  122;  Salisbury  Act 
(1891),  122 

Irish  University  Bill   (1873),  131 

Isabella,  Queen,  87 

Jaffa,  capture  of,  250 
Jamaica,  97 
Judicature  Act,  131 
Jutland,  battle  of,  251 

Kultur,  229 

Kut-el-Amara,  capture  of,  250 

Laborers'  Dwelling  Bill,  136 
Labor  Exchanges  Act  (1909),  204 
Land      Purchase      Bill,      Balfour's 
(1890),   174 

Law,  Bonar.  24-2,  244 

League  <  r    \  1;  ons'  Covenant,  253 

License  Bili    1      ^^\  207,  131 

Liege,  239 

Liquor  Con  ^^Oi^ss 

Lloyd   George,   2  39,  242- 

244,  257 
Local  Health  Board,  84 


Tfidex 


169 


i^MMOB  CoBTcnnoii  {xtt4)>  '5^ 

Louis  Philippe,  55,  86 

Macauiay,   Zachary,    67 
Maiuba  Hill,  149 

and  Slidell,  95 
;:j.!Wa!  .  Emperor,  iii 
,   Justin,    177 
P--P,   89 
^152 

of,  250 
Morocco,  228 

Municipal  Corporation  Act  (1835), 
75-78 

Napoleon,  26,  30,  31 

Napoleon,  Louis,  89 

National  Insurance  Act  (1911),  204 

Nelson,  29 

Nightingale,    Florence,   91 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  52,  54 
O'Connor,  82 

Old  Age  Pensions  Act  (1908),  203 
O'Shea,  Captain,  176 
Outram,  Sir  James,  92 
Oxford    University,    religious   tests 
removed,  127 

Paine,  22 

Palmerston,    Lord,    85-89,    92,    93, 

95,  100 
Pan-GermaiiiNib,  226,  230-233 
Paris  revolution   (1830),  55 
Parliamentary      Bill,      Asquith's 

(1911),  212 
Parliament  unreformed,  56-59 
Parnell,  Charles  Stewart,  143,  157, 

158,  173,  175,  176 
"Parnellism  and  Crime,"  174 
Peace  of  Amiens,  26 
Peel,  Sir  Robert,   50,  80,  81 
Pendjeh  incident,  156 
Penny  Postal  System,  83 
Peterloo  incident,  47 
Picardy,  battle  of,  250 
Pitt,  25 

Plunkett,  Sir  Horace,  257 
Poor  Law  Reform,  72-75 
Port  Arthur,    189 
Pretor  a  1  ition  (i 881),  149 

Preve  of  Cruelty  to  Children 

Act  u^J^9)»  17* 


Queen's  Jubilee,  170 

Redistribution  of  Seats  Act  (1885), 

H5 
Reform  Act  (1884),  ^45 
Reform  Bill   (1831),  59-64 
Repeal  of  Corn  Laws,  79-82 
Roberts,  Lord,  241 
Royal  Titles  Bill   (1876),  137 
Rosebery,  Lord,  180,  182 
Russell's  Franchise  Bill,  103 
Russell,  Lord  John,  61,  77,  80,  81, 

85,  89,  97 
Russia,    war    declared   on    Turkey 

(1877),  140 

Salisbury,  Lord,  161,  167-169,  178, 
183,   186,   187,   194 

San  Juan  Island,  133 

Sarajevo,  236 

Servia,  236,    21-^ 

Shaftesbury,    Lord,    70,   72 

Sierra  Leone  Colony,  67 

Sinn-Feiners,  256,  257 

Six  Acts  (i8fr),  36 

Slavery,  65-67 

Small  Holdings  Act  (1891),  172; 
(1892),   206 

Soissons,   battle   of,   250 

Soudan,  rebellion  of  (1881),  152; 
conquest  of    (1899),  191 

South  African  War  (1899),  193 

Spencer,  Lord,  159 

St.  Mihiel  Salient,  256 

Stratford,  Ambassador  at  Constan- 
tinople, 89 

Suez    Canal,    shares   bought,    137 

Tariff  Reform,  218 

Tel-el-Kebir,  151 

Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  51 

Tewfik,  Khedive,  150 

Theodore,  King  of  Abyssinia,  109 

••Three  F's,"   120 

Toryism   (1800-1830),  35,  48 

Trades  Boards  Act  (1909),  204 

Treaty  of  Pad-is '.(Ji 8^),; 91. 

Treaty  of  f  i*;n'T»iD^,;.  9J  .' . ': 

Triple  Alliance,  227  ' 

Triple  Entente,. 927 

'••:••*'•   ..••.,::    •. ; 

Ulstcir  Pirliaraf'nV  %jj^^,i)\  25? 
Unkiar  Skelesi  Treaty  (1833),  88 


>    «    • 

»    •  •  • 
•    t    » 


* »       »  •     .  »•      .1 
•■  •      •  •  •    ,  i       , 
•    •    •      t    ,    , 


270 


Index 


Valera,  256 

Venezuelan  controversy,   i86,   187 
Verdun,  battle  of,  249 
Versailles  Treaty,  253 
Victoria,    Queen,   64,   81,    182 
Villeneuve,  29 
Vinny  Ridge,  battle  ot    z^o 


21S 


216, 


Whigs'    demand    (1816),    45;    m- 

premacy,  64 
Wilberforce,  William    fifi 
William  IV,  54,  61,  64 
Wilson,  President  Woodrow,  239 
Workmen's     Compensation     Acts 

(1897),  183;   (1906),  203 
Wolseley,  Lord,  151,  155 
Woman's  Suffrage,  219,  220 
World  War  (i9i4)>  224 

Ypres,  battle  of,  247,  250 

Zobeir  Pasha,  154 


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